Pharmacogenetics of antithrombotic drugs

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 12, Issue 19, 2006, Pages 2425-2435

  Tassies D ^a  

^a INSTITUT D INVESTIGACIONS BIOMÈDIQUES AUGUST PI I SUNYER IDIBAPS   (Spain)

Author keywords

Antithrombotic drugs; Cardiovascular; Genetic polymorphism; Pharmacogenetics; Pharmacogenomics; Thrombosis

Indexed keywords

ABCIXIMAB; ACENOCOUMAROL; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALTEPLASE; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 12; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 13; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5; CHOLESTEROL ESTER TRANSFER PROTEIN; CLOPIDOGREL; COUMARIN; CYTOCHROME P450; EPTIFIBATIDE; ESTROGEN; FIBRINOGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; HEPARIN; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; MENADIONE EPOXIDE; ORBOFIBAN; PHENPROCOUMON; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE; PROTHROMBIN; STROMELYSIN; THROMBOCYTE RECEPTOR; TICLOPIDINE; TIROFIBAN; UNINDEXED DRUG; WARFARIN;

ANTICOAGULATION; ARTERY THROMBOSIS; BLEEDING; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISPOSITION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; GENE FREQUENCY; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HEPARIN INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA; HEREDITY; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; LOW DRUG DOSE; MENOPAUSAL SYNDROME; MENOPAUSE; PHARMACOGENETICS; PHARMACOGENOMICS; PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATION; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION INHIBITION; THROMBOEMBOLISM; VEIN THROMBOSIS;

FIBRINOLYTIC AGENTS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HEMOSTASIS; HUMANS; PHARMACOGENETICS; POLYMORPHISM, GENETIC; THROMBOSIS;

EID: 33745756526     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138161206777698963     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Evans WE, McLeod HL. Pharmacogenomics. Drug disposition, drug targets, and side effects. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 538-49.
2. Humma LM, Terra SG. Pharmacogenetics and cardiovascular disease: impact on drug response and applications to disease management. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2002, 59: 1241-52.
3. Shimokawa T, Smith WI. Prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase. The aspirin acetylation region. J Biol Chem 1992; 267: 12387-92.
4. Cattaneo M. Aspirin and clopidogrel. Efficacy, safety, and the issue of drug resistance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 1980-7.
5. Mason PJ, Freedman JE, Jacobs AK. Aspirin resistance: current concepts. Rev Cardiovasc Med 2004; 5: 156-63.
6. McKee SA, Sane DC, Deliargyris EN. Aspirin resistance in cardiovascular disease: A review of prevalence, mechanisms, and clinical significance. Thromb Haemost 2002; 88: 711-5.
7. Patrono C. Aspirin resistance: definition, mechanisms and clinical read-outs. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1: 1710-3.
8. Cambria-Kiely JA, Gandhi PJ. Possible mechanisms of aspirin resistance. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2002; 13: 49-56.
9. Halushka MK, Walker LP, Halushka PV. Genetic variation in cyclooxygenase 1: Effects on response to aspirin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2003; 73: 122-30.
10. Gonzalez-Conejero R, Rivera J, Corral J, Acuna C, Guerrero JA, Vicente V. Biological assessment of aspirin efficacy on healthy individuals: heterogeneous response or aspirin failure? Stroke 2005; 36: 276-80.
11. Cipollone F, Rocca B, Patrono, C. Cyclooxygenase-2 expression and inhibition in atherothrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 246-55.
12. Rocca B, Secchiero P, Ciabattoni G, Ranelletti FO, Catani L, Guidotti L, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 expression is induced during human megakaryopoyesis and characterizes newly formed platelets. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99: 7634-9.
13. Cambria-Kiely JA, Gandhi PJ. Aspirin resistance and genetic polymorphisms. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2002; 14: 51-8.
14. Papafili A, Hill MR, Brull DJ, McAnulty RJ, Marshall RP, Humphries SE, et al. Common promoter variant in cyclooxygenase-2 represses gene expression: evidence of role in acute-phase inflammatory response. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1631-6.
15. Kunicki TJ, Newman PJ. The molecular biology of human platelet proteins. Blood 1992; 80: 1396-404.
16. A2 polymorphism and thromboembolic events: from inherited risk to pharmacogenetics. J Thromb Tbrombolysis 1999; 8: 89-103.
17. A2 polymorphism and efficacy of aspirin. Lancet 1998; 351: 1253.
18. A2 polymorphism of β3 subunit (glycoprotein IIIa). Br J Haematol 2000; 110: 911-8.
19. A polymorphisms display different sensitivities to agonist. Circulation 2000; 101: 1013-8.
20. A1 (GP IIIa) polymorphism but no with C807T (GP Ia/IIa) and C5T Kozak (GPIbα) polymorphisms. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003, 42: 1115-9.
21. Undas A, Sanak M, Musial J, Szczeklik A. Platelet glycoprotein IIIa polymorphism, aspirin, and thrombin generation. Lancet 1999; 353: 982-3.
22. Szczeklik A, Undas A, Sanak M, Frolow M, Wegrzyn W. Relationship between bleeding time, aspirin and the PlA1/A2 polymorphism of platelet glycoprotein IIIa. Br J Haematol 2002; 110: 965-7.
23. Walter DH, Schächinger V, Elsner M, Dimmeler S, Zeiher AM. Platelet glycoprotein IIIa polymorphisms and risk of coronary stent thrombosis. Lancet 1997; 350: 1217-9.
24. A polymorphism of glycoprotein IIIa and risk of adverse events after coronary stent replacement. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 36: 84-9.
25. Santoso S. Platelet polymorphisms in thrombotic disorders. Transfus Clin Biol 2001; 8: 261-6.
26. Ariëns RAS, Philippou H, Nagaswami C, Weisel JW, Lane DA, Grant PJ. The factor XIII V34L polymorphism accelerates thrombin activation of factor XIII and affects cross-linked fibrin structure. Blood 2000; 96: 988-95.
27. Wartiovaara U, Perola M, Mikkola H, Totterman K, Savolainen V, Penttila A, et al. Association of FXIII Val34Leu with decreased risk of myocardial infarction in Finnish males. Atherosclerosis 1999; 142: 295-300.
28. Roldán V, Corral J, Marin F, Rivera J, Pineda J, Gonzalez-Conejero R, et al. Role of Factor XIII Val34Leu polymorphism in patients <45 years of age with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 2003; 91: 1242-5.
29. Lim BC, Ariens RA, Carter AM, Weisel JW, Grant PJ. Genetic regulation of fibrin structure and function: complex gene-environment interactions may modulate vascular risk. Lancet 2003; 361: 1424-31
30. Undas A, Sydor WJ, Brummel K, Musial J, Mann KG, Szczeklik A. Aspirin alters the cardioprotective effects of the factor XIII Val34Leu polymorphism. Circulation 2003; 107: 17-20.
31. Hollopeter G, Jantzen HM, Vincent D, Li G, England L, Ramakrishnan V, et al. Identification of the platelet ADP receptor targeted by antithrombotic drugs. Nature 2001; 409: 202-7
32. Lau WC, Gurbel PA, Watkins PB, Neer CJ, Hopp AS, Carville DGM, et al. Contribution of hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 metabolic activity to the phenomenon of clopidogrel resistance. Circulation 2004; 109: 166-71.
33. Angiolillo DJ, Fernández-Ortiz A, Bernardo E, Alfonso F, Sabate M, Fernandez C, et al. PlA polymorphism and platelet reactivity following clopidogrel loading dose in patients undergoing coronary stent implantation. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2004; 15: 89-93.
34. Kritzik M, Savage B, Nugent DJ, Santoso S, Ruggeri ZM, Kunicki TJ. Nucleotide polymorphisms in the alpha2 gene define multiple alleles that are associated with differences in platelet alpha2 betal density. Blood 1998; 92: 2382-8.
35. Moshfegh K, Wuillemin WA, Redondo M, Lammle B, Beer JH, Liechti-Gallati S, et al. Association of two silent polymorphisms of platelet glycoprotein Ia/lIa receptor with risk of myocardial infarction: a case-control study. Lancet 1999; 353: 351-4.
36. Angiolillo DJ, Fenández-Ortiz A, Bernardo E, Ramirez C, Escaned J, Moreno R, et al. 807 C/T Polymorphism of the glycoprotein Ia gene and pharmacogenetic modulation of platelet response to dual antiplatelet treatment. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2004, 15: 427-33.
37. Fontana P, Dupont A, Grandille S, Bachelot-Loza C, Reny JL, Aiach M, et al. Adenosine diphosphate-induced platelet aggregation is associated with P2Y12 gene sequence variations in healthy subjects. Circulation 2003; 108: 989-95.
38. Lincoff AM, Califf RM, Topol EJ. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor blockade in coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35: 1103-15.
39. Phillips DR, Charo IF, Parise LV, Fitzgerald LA. The platelet membrane glycoprotein IIb/IIIa complex. Blood 1988; 71: 83143.
40. Schrör K, Weber AA. Comparative pharmacology of Gp IIb/IIIa antagonists. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2003; 15: 71-86.
41. A2 polymorphism. Am Heart J 2002; 143: 76-82.
42. Weber AA, Jacobs C, Meila D, Weber S, Zotz RB, Scharrf RE, et al. No evidence for an influence of the human platelet antigen-1 polymorphism on the antiplatelet effects of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors. Pharmacogenetics 2002; 12: 581-3.
43. Bennett JS, Catella-Lawson F, Rut AR, Vilaire G, Qi W, Kapoor SC, et al. Effect of the P1A2 alloantigen on the firriction of b3-integrins in platelets. Blood 2001; 97: 3093-9.
44. Gorchakova O, Koch W, Mehili J, von Becherath N, Schwaiger M, Schömig A, et al. P1A polymorphism of the glycoprotein IIIa and efficacy of reperfusion therapy in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Thromb Haemost 2004; 91: 141-5.
45. Cox D. Oral GPIIb/IIIa antagonists: what went wrong? Curr Pharm Des 2004; 10: 1587-96.
46. O'Connor FF, Shields DC, Fizgerald A, Cannon CP, Braunwald E, Fizgerald DJ. Genetic variation in glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GPIIb/IIIa) as a determinant of the responses to an oral OPIIb/IIIa antagonist in patients with unstable coronary syndromes. Blood 2001; 98: 3256-60.
47. Shields DC, Fitzgerald AP, O'Neil PA, Muckian C, Kenny D, Moran B, et al. The contribution of genetic factors to thrombotic and bleeding outcomes in coronary patients randomised to II b/IIIa antagonist. Pharmacogenomics J 2002; 2: 182-90.
48. Peter K, Schwarz M, Ylanne J, Kohler B, Moser M, Nordt T, et al. Induction of fibrinogen binding and platelet aggregation as a potential intrinsic property of various glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (alpha IIb beta 3) inhibitors. Blood 1998; 92: 3240-9.
49. Cox D, Smith R, Quinn M, Theroux P, Crean P, Fitzgerald DJ. Evidence of platelet activation during treatment with a GP IIb/IIIa antagonist in patients presenting with acute coronary syndromes. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 36: 1514-9.
50. Weber AA, Meila D, Jacobs C, Weber S, Kelm M, Strauer BE, et al. Low incidence of paradoxical platelet activation by glycoprotein II b/IIIa inhibitors. Thromb Res 2002; 106: 25-9.
51. Aithal GP, Day CP, Kesteven PJL, Daly AK. Association of polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 with warfarin dose requirement and risk of bleeding complications. Lancet 1999; 353: 717-9.
52. Hermida J, Zarza J, Alberca I, Montes R, Lopez ML, Molina E, et al. Differential effects of 2C9*3 and 2C9*2 variants of cytochrome P-450 CYP2C9 on sensitivity to acenocoumarol. Blood 2002; 99: 4237-9.
53. Tàssies D, Freire C, Pijoan J, Maragall S, Monteagudo J, Ordinas A, et al. Pharmacogenetics of acenocoumarol: cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 polymorphisms influence dose requirements and stability of anticoagulation. Haematologica 2002; 87: 1185-91.
54. Visser LE, van Schaik RHN, van Vliet M, Trienekens PH, De Smet PAGM, Vulto AG, et al. The risk of bleeding complications in patients with cytochrome P450 CYP2C9*2 or CYP2C9*3 alleles on acenocoumarol or phenprocoumon. Thromb Haemost 2004; 92: 61-6.
55. Kirchheiner J, Ufer M, Walter EC, Kammerer B, Kahlich R, Meisel C, et al. Effects of CYP2C9 polymorphisms on the pharmacokinetics of R- and S- phenprocoumon in healthy volunteers. Pharmacogenetics 2004; 14: 19-26.
56. Schalekamp T, Oosterhof M, van Meegen E, van Der Meer FJ, Conemans J, Hermans M, et al. Effects of cytochrome P450 2C9 polymorphisms on phenprocoumon anticoagulation status. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004; 76: 409-17.
57. Imai J, Ieiri I, Mamiya K, Miyahara S, Furuumi H, Nanba E, et al. Polymorphism of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9 gene in Japanese epileptic patients: genetic analysis of the CYP2C9 locus. Pharmacogenetics 2000; 10: 85-9.
58. Dickmann LJ, Rettie AE, Kneller MB, Kim RB, Wood AJ, Stein CM, et al. Identification and functional characterization of a new CYP2C9 variant (CYP2C9*5) expressed among African Americans. Mol Pharmacol 2001; 60: 382-7.
59. Zhao F, Loke C, Rankin SC, Guo JY, Lee HS, Wu TS, et al. Novel CYP2C9 genetic variants in Asian subjects and their influence on maintenance warfarin dose. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004; 76: 210-9.
60. Takahashi H, Wilkinson GR, Caraco Y, Muszkat M, Kim RB, Kashima T, et al. Population differences in S-warfarin metabolism between CYP2C9 genotype-matched Caucasian and Japanese patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2003; 73: 253-63.
61. Li T, Chang CY, Jin DY, Lin PJ, Khvorova A, Stafford DW. Identification of the gene for vitamin K epoxide reductase. Nature 2004; 427: 541-5.
62. Rost S, Fregin A, Ivaskevicius V, Conzelmann E, Hörtnagel K, Pelz HJ, et al. Mutations in VKORC1 cause warfarin resistance and multiple coagulation factor deficiency type 2. Nature 2004; 427: 537-41.
63. Harrington DJ, Underwood S, Morse C, Shearer MJ, Tuddenham EGD, Mumford AD. Pharmacodynamic resistance to warfarin associated with a Va166Met substitution in vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1. Thromb Haemost 2005; 93: 23-6.
64. D'Andrea G, D'Ambrosio RL, Di Perna P, Chetta M, Santacroce R, Brancaccio V, et al. A polymorphism in the VKORC1 gene is associated with an interindividual variability in the dose-anticoagulant effect of warfarin. Blood 2005, 105: 645-9.
65. Chu K, Wu SM, Stanley T, Stafford DW, High KA. A mutation in the propeptide of factor IX leads to warfarin sensitivity by a novel mechanism. J Clin Invest 1996, 98: 1619-25.
66. Oldenburg J, Quenzel EM, Harbrecht U, Fregin A, Kress W, Müller CR, et al. Missense mutations at ALA-10 in the factor IX propeptide: an insignificant variant in normal life but a decisive cause of bleeding during oral anticoagulant therapy. Br J Haematol 1997; 98: 2404.
67. D'Ambrosio RL, D'Andrea G, Cappucci F, Chetta M, Di Perna P, Brancaccio V, et al. Polymorphisms in factor II and factor VII genes modulate oral anticoagulation with warfarin. Haematologica 2004; 89: 1510-6.
68. Shikata E, Ieiri I, Ishiguro S, Aono H, Inoue K, Koide T, et al. Association of pharmacokinetic (CYP2C9) and pharmacodynamic (factors II, VII, IX and X; proteins S and C; and γ-glutamyl carboxylase) gene variants with warfarin sensitivity. Blood 2004; 103: 2630-5.
69. Gage BF, Eby C, Milligan PE, Banet GA, Duncan JR, McLeod HL. Use of pharmacogenetics and clinical factors to predict the maintenance dose of warfarin. Thromb Haemost 2004; 91: 87-94.
70. Warkentin TE, Greinacher A. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: recognition, treatment and prevention: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004; 126(3 Suppl): 311S-37S.
71. Carlsson LE, Santoso S, Baurichter G, Kroll H, Papenberg S, Eichler P, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: new insights into the impact of the FcγIIa-R-H131 polymorphism. Blood 1998 92: 1526-31.
72. Arepally G, McKenzie SE, Jiang XM, Poncz M, Cines DB. Fc gamma RIIA H/R 131 polymorphism, subclass-specific IgG anti-heparin/platelet factor 4 antibodies and clinical course in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Blood 1997; 89: 370-5.
73. Trikalinos TA, Karassa FB, Ioannidis JP. Meta-analysis of the association between low-affinity Fcgamma receptor gene polymorphisms and hematologic and autoimmune disease. Blood 2001; 98: 1634-5.
74. Gruel Y, Pouplard C, Lasne D, Magdelaine-Beuzelin C, Charroing C, Watier H. The homozygous FcgammaRIIIa-158V genotype is a risk factor for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients with antibodies to heparin-platelet factor 4 complexes. Blood 2004; 104: 2791-3.
75. Wu J, Edberg JC, Redecha PB, Bansal V, Guyre PM, Coleman K, et al. A novel polymorphism of Fc gamma RIIIa (CD 16) alters receptor function and predisposes to autoimmune disease, J Clin Invest 1997; 100: 1059-70.
76. Horsewood P, Kelton JG. Investigation of a platelet factor 4 polymorphism on the immune response in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Platelets 2000; 11: 23-7.
77. Carlsson LE, Lubenow N, Blumentritt C, Kempf R, Papenberg S, Schröder W, et al. Platelet receptor and clotting factor polymorphisms as genetic risk factors for thromboembolic complications in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Pharmacogenetics 2003; 13: 253-8.
78. The GUSTO Angiographic Investigators. The effects of tissue plasminogen activator, streptokinase, or both on coronary artery patency, ventricular function, and survival after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Mod 1993; 329: 1615-22
79. Marin F, Gonzalez-Conejero R, Lee KW, Corral J, Roldan V, Lopez F, et al. A pharmacogenetic effect of factor XIII valine 34 leucine polymorphism on fibrinolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45: 25-9.
80. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Furberg C, Herrington D, Riggs B, et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/ progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA 1998; 280: 605-13.
81. Herrington DM, Klein KP. Pharmacogenetics of estrogen replacement therapy. J Appl Physiol 2001; 91: 2776-84
82. Braunstein JB, Kershner DW, Bray P, Gerstenblith G, Schulman SP, Post WS, et al. Interaction of hemostatic genetics with hormone therapy: new insights to explain arterial thrombosis in post-menopausal women. Cbest 2002; 121: 906-20.
83. Bertina RM, Koeleman BP, Koster T, Rosendaal FR, Dirven RJ, de Ronde H, et al. Mutation in blood coagulation factor V associated with resistance to activated protein C. Nature 1994; 369: 64-7.
84. Vandenbroucke JP, Koster T, Briet E, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM, Rosendaal FR. Increased risk of venous thrombosis in oral-contraceptive users who are carriers of the factor V Leiden mutation. Lancet 1994: 369: 1453-7.
85. Rosendaal FR, Vessey M, Rumley A, Daly E, Woodward M, Helmerhorst FM, et al. Hormonal replacement therapy, prothrombotic mutations and the risk of venous thrombosis. Br J Haematol 2002; 116: 851-4.
86. Herrington DM, Vittinghoff E, Howard TD, Major DA, Owen D, Reboussin DM, et al. Factor V Leiden, hormone replacement therapy, and risk of venous thromboembolic events in women with coronary disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1012-7.
87. Glueck CJ, Wang P, Fontaine RN, Tracy T, Sieve-Smith L, Lang JE. Effect of exogenous estrogen on atherothrombotic vascular disease risk related to the presence or absence of the factor V Leiden mutation (resistance to activated protein C). Am J Cardiol 1999; 84: 549-54.
88. Glueck CJ, Wang P, Fontaine RN, Sieve-Smith L, Lang JE. Estrogen replacement therapy, thrombophilia, and atherothrombosis. Metabolism 2002; 51: 724-32.
89. Weitz IC, Israel VK, Liebman HA. Tamoxifen-associated venous thrombosis and activated protein C resistance due to factor V Leiden. Cancer 1997; 79: 2024-7.
90. Poort SR, Rosendaal FR, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM. A common genetic variation in the 3′-untranslated region of the prothrombin gene is associated with elevated plasma prothrombin levels and an increase in venous thrombosis. Blood 1996; 88: 3698-703.
91. Martinelli I, Sacchi E, Landi G, Taioli E, Duca F, Manucci PM. High risk of cerebral-vein thrombosis in carriers of a prothrombin gene mutation and in users of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:1840-1.
92. Martinelli I, Taioli E, Bucciarelli P, Akhanan S, Manucci PM. Interaction between the G20210A mutation of the prothrombin gene and oral contraceptive use in deep vein thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999; 19: 700-3.
93. Vaya A, Mira Y, Mateo J, Falco C, Villa P, Estelles A, et al. Prothrombin G20210A mutation and oral contraceptive use increase upper-extremity deep vein thrombotic risk. Thromb Haemost 2003; 89: 452-7.
94. Psaty BM, Smith NL, Lemaitre RN, Vos HL, Heckbert SR, LaCroix AZ, et al. Hormone replacement therapy, prothrombotic mutations, and the risk of incident nonfatal myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. JAMA 2001; 285: 906-13.
95. Glueck CJ, Wang P, Fontaine RN, Sieve-Smith L, Lang JE. Inter-action of estrogen replacement therapy with the thrombophilic 20210 G/A prothrombin gene mutation for atherothrombotic vascular disease: a cross-sectional study of 275 hyperlipidemic women. Metabolism 2001; 50: 360-5.
96. Tempfer CB, Riener EK, Heller LA, Huber JC, Muendlein A. DNA microarray-based analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms may be useful for assessing the risks and benefits of hormone therapy. Fertil Steril 2004; 82: 132-7.
97. A polymorphism of glycoprotein IIIa functions as a modifier for the effect of estrogen on platelet aggregation. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2001; 125: 112-5.
98. Reiner AP, Heckbert SR, Vos HL, Ariens RA, Lemaitre RN, Smith NL, et al. Genetic variants of coagulation factor XIII, postmenopausal estrogen therapy, and risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction. Blood 2003, 102: 25-30.
99. Davignon J. Beneficial cardiovascular pleiotropic effects of statins. Circulation 2004; 109: III39-43.
100. Maitland-van der Zee AH, Klungel OH, Stricker BHCh, Verschuren WMM, Kastelein JJP, Leufkens HGM, et al. Genetic polymorphisms: importance for response to HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Atherosclerosis 2002; 163: 213-22.
101. A2 allele of the platelet glycoprotein III a gene. Eur Heart J 2001; 22: 587-95.
102. Bray PF, Cannon CP, Goldschmidt-Clermont P, Moyé LA, Pfeffer MA, Sacks FM, et al. The platelet P1(A2) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE D) allele polymorphisms and the risk of recurrent events after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88: 347-52.
103. Tirado J, Soria JM, Oliver A, Souto JC, Santamaria A, Felices R, et al. Association after linkage analysis indicates that homozygosity for the 46C-->T polymorphism in the F12 gene is a genetic risk factor for venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 2004; 91: 899-904.
104. Zito F, Lowe GDO, Rumley A, McMahon AD, Humphries SE. Association of the factor XII 46C>T polymorphism with risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in the WOSCOPS study. Atherosclerosis 2002; 165: 153-8.
105. Kuivenhoven JA, de Knijff P, Boer JM, Smalheer HA, Botma GJ, Seidell JC, et al. Heterogeneity at the CETP gene locus-influence on plasma CETP concentrations and HDL cholesterol levels. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17: 560-8.
106. Kuivenhoven JA, Jukema JW, Zwinderman AH, de Knijff P, McPherson R, Bruschke AV, et al. The role of a common variant of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein gene in the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. The Regression Growth Evaluation Statin Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 86-93.
107. de Grooth GJ, Zerba KE, Huang SP, Tsuchihashi Z, Kirchgessner T, Belder R, et al. The cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) TaqIB polymorphism in the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events study: No interaction with the response to pravastatin therapy and no effects on cardiovascular outcome. J Am Col Cardiol 2004; 43 854-7.
108. De Maat MP, Jukema JW, Ye S, Zwinderman AH, Moghaddam PH, Beekman M, et al. Effect of stromelysin-1 promoter on efficacy of pravastatin in coronary atherosclerosis and restenosis. Am J Cardiol 1999; 83: 852-6.
109. Boekholdt SM, Agema WR, Peters RJ, Zwinderman AH, Van Der Wall EE, Reitsma PH, et al. Variants of toll-like receptor 4 modify the efficacy of statin therapy and the risk of cardiovascular events. Circulation 2003; 107: 2416-21.
110. de Maat MP, Kastelein JJ, Jukema JW, Zwinderman AH, Jansen H, Groenemeier B, et al. -455G/A polymorphism of the β-fibrinogen gene is associated with the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in symptomatic men-proposed role for an acute-phase reaction pattern of fibrinogen. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998; 18: 265-71.
111. Gerdes LU, Gerdes C, Kervinen K, Savolainen M, Klausen IC, Hansen PS, et al. The apolipoprotein e4 allele determines prognosis and the effect on prognosis of simvastatin in survivors of myocardial infarction - a substudy of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study. Circulation 2000; 101: 1366-71.
112. Zambon A, Deeb SS, Brown BG, Hokanson JE, Brunzell JD. Common hepatic lipase gene promoter variant determines clinical response to intensive lipid-lowering treatment. Circulation 2001; 103: 792-8.
113. Gruber A, Hanson SR. Potential new targets for antithrombotic therapy. Curr Pharm Des 2003; 9(28): 2367-74.
114. Kunapuli SP, Ding Z, Dorsam RT, Kim S, Murugappan S, Quinton TM. ADP receptors--targets for developing antithrombotic agents. Curr Pharm Des 2003; 9(28): 2303-16
115. Mourao, PA. Use of sulfated fucans as anticoagulant and antithrombotic agents: future perspectives. Curr Pharm Des 2004; 10(9): 967-81.