Pharmacology of the fluoroquinolones: A perspective for the use in domestic animals

Veterinary Journal

Volumn 172, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 10-28

  Martinez, Marilyn ^a   McDermott, Patrick ^a   Walker, Robert ^a  

^a CENTER FOR DRUG EVALUATION AND RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

Fluoroquinolones; Pharmacodynamics; Pharmacokinetics; Resistance; Veterinary

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CINOXACIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; DANOFLOXACIN; DIFLOXACIN; ENOXACIN; ENROFLOXACIN; FLEROXACIN; FLUMEQUINE; GATIFLOXACIN; GREPAFLOXACIN; LEVOFLOXACIN; LOMEFLOXACIN; MARBOFLOXACIN; MOXIFLOXACIN; NALIDIXIC ACID; NORDIFLOXACIN; NORFLOXACIN; OFLOXACIN; ORBIFLOXACIN; OXOLINIC ACID; PEFLOXACIN; PENICILLIN G; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; SPARFLOXACIN; TEMAFLOXACIN; TROVAFLOXACIN; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ANIMAL DISEASE; ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ARTHROPATHY; ARTICLE; ATAXIA; CATARACT; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; CRYSTALLURIA; DIARRHEA; DIZZINESS; DOMESTIC ANIMAL; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG MARKETING; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG STRUCTURE; DRUG USE; EYE TOXICITY; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HUMAN; INSOMNIA; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PHOTOTOXICITY; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; RESTLESSNESS; RETINA DEGENERATION; SEIZURE; SOMNOLENCE; SPECIES DIFFERENCE; STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATION; TORSADE DES POINTES; TOXICITY TESTING; TREMOR; UNITED STATES; VETERINARY MEDICINE; VOMITING;

ANIMAL DISEASES; ANIMALS; ANIMALS, DOMESTIC; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; DRUG APPROVAL; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; FLUOROQUINOLONES; LEGISLATION, DRUG; SPECIES SPECIFICITY; VETERINARY DRUGS;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 33745016515     PISSN: 10900233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.07.010     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. Agarwal R., Mittal R., and Singh A. Studies of ion-exchange resin complex of chloroquine phosphate. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy 26 (2000) 773-776
2. Albarellos G.A., Kreil V.E., and Landoni M.F. Pharmacokinetics of ciprofloxacin after single intravenous and repeated oral administration to cats. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 27 (2004) 155-162
3. Al Omran M.F., Al Suwayeh S.A., El Helw A.M., and Saleh S.I. Taste masking of diclofenac sodium using microencapsulation. Journal of Microencapsulation 19 (2002) 45-52
4. Alekshun M.N., and Levy S.B. The mar regulon: multiple resistance to antibiotics and other toxic chemicals. Trends in Microbiology 7 (1999) 410-413
5. AliAbadi F.S., and Lees P. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic integration of marbofloxacin in calf serum, exudate and transudate. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacological Therapy 25 (2002) 161-174
6. Allen A., Bygate E., Clark D., Lewis A., and Pay V. The effect of food on the bioavailability of oral gemifloxacin in healthy volunteers. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 16 (2000) 45-50
7. Ambrose P.G., and Grasela D.M. The use of Monte Carlo simulation to examine pharmacodynamic variance of drugs: fluoroquinolone pharmacodynamics against Streptococcus pneumoniae. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 38 (2000) 151
8. Aminimanizani A., Beringer P., and Jelliffe R. Comparative pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the newer fluoroquinolone antibacterials. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 40 (2001) 169-187
9. Andes D., and Craig W.A. Pharmacodynamics of the new fluoroquinolone gatifloxacin in murine thigh and lung infection models. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 46 (2002) 1665-1670
10. Appelbaum P.C., and Hunter P.A. The fluoroquinolone antibacterials: past, present and future perspectives. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 16 (2000) 5-15
11. Araki H., Ogake N., Minami S., Watanabe Y., Narita H., Tamai I., and Tsuji A. Application of muscle microdialysis to evaluate the concentrations of the fluoroquinolones pazufloxacin and ofloxacin in the tissue interstitial fluids of rats. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 49 (1997) 1141-1144
12. Ball P. Quinolone generations: natural history or natural selection. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 46 Suppl T1 (2000) 17-24
13. a values of quinolones in hydroorganic mixtures. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 24 (2001) 1087-1098
14. Barbosa J., Barron D., and Jimenez-Lozano E. Electrophoretic behaviour of quinolones in capillary electrophoresis. Effect of pH and evaluation of ionization constants. Journal of Chromatography A 839 (1999) 183-192
15. Barron D., Jimenez-Lozano E., and Barbosa J. Prediction of electrophoretic behaviour of a series of quinolones in aqueous methanol. Journal of Chromatography A 919 (2001) 395-406
16. Bebear C.M., Renaudin H., Charron A., Clerc M., Pereyre S., and Bebear C. DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV mutations in clinical isolates of Ureaplasma spp. and Mycoplasma hominis resistant to fluoroquinolones. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 47 (2003) 3323-3325
17. Bergogne-Berezin E. Clinical role of protein binding of quinolones. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 41 (2002) 741-750
18. Bertino Jr. J., and Fish D. The safety profile of the fluoroquinolones. Clinical Therapeutics 22 (2000) 798-817
19. Blaser J., Stone B.B., Groner M.C., and Zinner S.H. Comparative study with enoxacin and netilmicin in a pharmacodynamic model to determine importance of ratio of antibiotic peak concentration to MIC for bactericidal activity and emergence of resistance. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31 (1987) 1054-1060
20. Blondeau J.M. Expanded activity and utility of the new fluoroquinolones: a review. Clinical Therapeutics 21 (1999) 3-40
21. Boothe D.M., Boeckh A., Boothe H.W., Wilkie S., and Jones S. Plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin and its active metabolite ciprofloxacin in dogs following single oral administration of enrofloxacin at 7.5, 10, or 20 mg/kg. Veterinary Therapeutics 3 (2002) 409-419
22. Butts J.D. Intracellular concentrations of antibacterial agents and related clinical implications. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 27 (1994) 63-84
23. Carretero M., Rodriguez C., San Andres M.I., Fores P., de Lucas J.J., Nieto J., San Andres M.D., and Gonzalez F. Pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin in mature horses after single intravenous and intramuscular administration. Equine Veterinary Journal 34 (2002) 360-365
24. Chiba K., Sugiyama A., Hagiwara T., Takahashi S., Takasuna K., and Hashimoto K. In vivo experimental approach for the risk assessment of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents-induced long QT syndrome. European Journal of Pharmacology 486 (2004) 189-200
25. Chopra R., Alderborn G., Newton J.M., and Podczeck F. The influence of film coating on pellet properties. Pharmaceutical Development and Technology 7 (2002) 59-68
26. Cohn L.A., Gary A.T., Fales W.H., and Madsen R.W. Trends in fluoroquinolone resistance of bacteria isolated from canine urinary tracts. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 15 (2003) 338-343
27. Cohen S.P., McMurray L.M., and Levy S.B. marA locus causes decreased expression of OmpF porin in multiple-antibiotic-resistant (Mar) mutants of Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology 170 (1988) 5416-5422
28. Cohen S.P., Yan W., and Levy S.B. A multidrug resistance regulatory chromosomal locus is widespread among enteric bacteria. Journal of Infectious Diseases 168 (1993) 484-488
29. Costerton J.W., Stewart P.S., and Greenberg E.P. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science 284 (1999) 1318-1322
30. Coulet M., Morello C., Cox P., and Lohuis J. Pharmacokinetics of ibafloxacin in healthy cats. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 28 (2005) 37-44
31. Cox S.K., Cottrell M.B., Smith L., Papich M.G., Frazier D.L., and Bartges J. Allometric analysis of ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin pharmacokinetics across species. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacological and Therapeutics 27 (2004) 139-146
32. Craig W.A. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clinical Infectious Diseases 26 (1998) 1-10
33. Craig W.A., and Dalhoff A. Pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones in experimental animals. In: Born G.V.R., Cuatrecas P., Ganten D., Herken H., Melmon K.L., and Starke K. (Eds). Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology (1998), Springer, Berlin 208-232
34. Craig W.A., and Ebert S.C. Protein binding and its significance in antibacterial therapy. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 3 (1989) 407-414
35. Cubeddu L.X. QT prolongation and fatal arrhythmias: a review of clinical implications and effects of drugs. American Journal Therapeutics 10 (2003) 452-457
36. Curtis L.H., Ostbye T., Sendersky V., Hutchison S., Allen LaPointe N.M., Al Khatib S.M., Usdin Y.S., Dans P.E., Wright A., Califf R.M., Woosley R.L., and Schulman K.A. Prescription of QT-prolonging drugs in a cohort of about 5 million outpatients. American Journal of Medicine 114 (2003) 135-141
37. Dalhoff A. A review of quinolones. Proceedings of an International Telesymposium (1989), J. R. Prous Science, Barcelona, Spain 277-312
38. Dautrey S., Felice K., Petiet A., Lacour B., Carbon C., and Farinotti R. Active intestinal elimination of ciprofloxacin in rats: modulation by different substrates. British Journal of Pharmacology 127 (1999) 1728-1734
39. Derendorf, H. 2003. Microdialysis-based PK/PD approaches in antimicrobial drug development. Available from: , 2003 (9-17-2004. Ref Type: Electronic Citation).
40. Deziel, M.R., Louis, A., Heine, H., Bush, K., Kao, M., Kelley, M., Drusano, G.L., 2001. Evaluation of levofloxacin in a hollow fiber infection model against Bacillus anthracis utilizing both human and Rhesus Monkey pharmacokinetic profiles. Abstracts of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Abstract # A-1157, Chicago, IL.
41. Drlica K., and Malik M. Fluoroquinolones: action and resistance:. Current Topics in Medical Chemistry 3 (2003) 249-282
42. Drusano, G.L. 2002. Pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones. In: Proceedings of the 10th ISAP Symposium: Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics (PK/PD): Towards Definitive Criteria. Milan, Italy, April 27-28.
43. Drusano G.L. Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics: critical interactions of bug and drug. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2 (2004) 289-300
44. Drusano G.L., Johnson D.E., Rosen M., and Standiford H.C. Pharmacodynamics of a fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent in a neutropenic rat model of Pseudomonas sepsis. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 37 (1993) 483-490
45. Dudley M.N., and Ambrose P.G. Pharmacodynamics in the study of drug resistance and establishing in vitro susceptibility breakpoints: ready for prime time. Current Opinions in Microbiology 3 (2000) 515-521
46. Efthymiopoulos C., Bramer S.L., and Maroli A. Effect of food and gastric pH on the bioavailability of grepafloxacin. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 33 Suppl. 1 (1997) 18-24
47. EMEA. European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products, Veterinary Medicines and Information Technology Unit. Marbofloxacin summary report, 3/96. Available from: (Accessed June 4, 2004).
48. Escribano E., Calpena A.C., Garrigues T.M., Freixas J., Domenech J., and Moreno J. Structure-absorption relationships of a series of 6-fluoroquinolones. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 41 (1997) 1996-2000
49. Everett M.J., Jin Y.F., Ricci V., and Piddock L.J. Contributions of individual mechanisms to fluoroquinolone resistance in 36 Escherichia coli strains isolated from humans and animals. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40 (1996) 2380-2386
50. Federal Register. 63 Fed. Reg. 8122 (Feb 18 1998). 1998.
51. Federal Register. 65 Fed. Reg. 64954 (Oct 31, 2000). 2000.
52. Federal Register. 66 Fed. Reg. 21400 (April 30, 2001). [Docket No. 00N-1571]. 2001.
53. Federal Register. 62 Fed. Reg. 50387 (Sept 25, 1997). 2004.
54. Food & Drug Administration 2004. Center for Veterinary Medicine Guidance for Industry #152: Assessment of the Effects of antimicrobial Drug Residues from Food of Animal Origin on the Human Intestinal Flora. Available from: (Accessed Sept 17, 2004).
55. Forrest A., Chodosh S., Amantea M.A., Collins D.A., and Schentag J.J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral grepafloxacin in patients with acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 40 Suppl A (1997) 45-57
56. Forrest A., Nix D.E., Ballow C.H., Goss T.F., Birmingham M.C., and Schentag J.J. Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 37 (1993) 1073-1081
57. Gajjar D.A., Sukoneck S.C., Bello A., Ge Z., Christopher L., and Grasela D.M. Effect of a high-fat meal on the pharmacokinetics of the des-F(6)-quinolone BMS-284756. Pharmacotherapy 22 (2002) 160-165
58. Gellert M., Mizuuchi K., O'Dea M.H., Itoh T., and Tomizawa J.I. Nalidixic acid resistance: a second genetic character involved in DNA gyrase activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences United States of the America 74 (1977) 4772-4776
59. Glaxo Wellcome. 2004. Glaxo Wellcome voluntarily withdraws Raxar (Grepafloxacin). Available from: (Accessed Sept 21, 2004).
60. Greene C.E., and Budsberg S.C. Veterinary use of quinolones. In: Hooper D.C., and Wolfson J.S. (Eds). Quinolone Antimicrobial Agents (1993), American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC 473-488
61. Griffiths N.M., Hirst B.H., and Simmons N.L. Active intestinal secretion of the fluoroquinolone antibacterials ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin and pefloxacin; a common secretory pathway?. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 269 (1994) 496-502
62. Guthrie R.M., Jacobs M., Low D.E., Mandell L., and Slama T. Treating resistant respiratory infections in the primary care setting: the role of the new quinolones (2004), University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Continuing Medical Education
63. Hawkey P.M. Mechanisms of quinolone action and microbial response. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 51 Suppl 1 (2003) 29-35
64. Heitzman, R.J., 1998. Residues of some veterinary drugs in animals and foods. In: 48th Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 41/10. Geneva, Switzerland, 18-27 February 1997. Available from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8338E/w8338e07.htm> (Accessed 9/20/2004).
65. Hooper D.C. Fluoroquinolone resistance among Gram-positive cocci. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2 (2002) 530-538
66. Ibrahim K.H., Hovde L.B., Ross G., Gunderson B., Wright D.H., and Rotschafer J.C. Microbiologic effectiveness of time- or concentration-based dosing strategies in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Diagnostic Microbiology Infectious Diseases 44 (2002) 265-271
67. Inui T., Taira T., Matsushita T., and Endo T. Pharmacokinetic properties and oral bioavailabilities of difloxacin in pig and chicken. Xenobiotica 28 (1998) 887-893
68. Jacoby G.A., Chow N., and Waites K.B. Prevalence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 47 (2003) 559-562
69. Johnson R.D., Door M.B., Hunt T.L., Jensen B.K., and Talbot G.H. Effects of food on the pharmacokinetics of sparfloxacin. Clinical Therapeutics 21 (1999) 982-991
70. Karablut N., and Drusano G.L. Pharmacokinetics of the quinolone antimicrobial agents. In: Hooper D.C., and Wolfson J.S. (Eds). Quinolone Antimicrobial Agents (1993), American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC 195-223
71. Khodursky A.B., Zechiedrich E.L., and Cozzarelli N.R. Topoisomerase IV is a target of quinolones in Escherichia coli. Proceedings for the National Academy of Sciences United States of the America 92 (1995) 11801-11805
72. Kovar A., Dalla C.T., and Derendorf H. Comparison of plasma and free tissue levels of ceftriaxone in rats by microdialysis. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 86 (1997) 52-56
73. Lesher G.Y., Foelich E.J., Gruett M.D., Baily J.H., and Brundage P.R. 1,8-Naphthyridine derivatives. A new class of chemotherapeutic agents. Journal of Medical Pharmacy and Chemistry 91 (1962) 1063-1065
74. Lizondo M., Pons M., Gallardo M., and Estelrich J. Physicochemical properties of enrofloxacin. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 15 (1997) 1845-1849
75. Lode H., Borner K., and Koeppe P. Pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones. Clinical Infectious Diseases 27 (1998) 33-39
76. Lucchetti D., Fabrizi L., Guandalini E., Podestà E., Marvasi L., Zaghini A., and Coni E. Long depletion time of enrofloxacin in rainbow trout (Oncorhnchus mykiss). Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 48 (2004) 3912-3917
77. Luo N., Sahin O., Lin J., Michel L.O., and Zhang Q. In vivo selection of Campylobacter isolates with high levels of fluoroquinolone resistance associated with gyrA mutations and the function of the CmeABC efflux pump. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 47 (2003) 390-394
78. MacGowan A., and Bowker K. Developments in PK/PD: optimising efficacy and prevention of resistance. A critical review of PK/PD in in vitro models. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 19 (2002) 291-298
79. MacGowan A., Rogers C., Holt H.A., Wootton M., and Bowker K. Assessment of different antibacterial effect measures used in in vitro models of infection and subsequent use in pharmacodynamic correlations for moxifloxacin. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 46 (2000) 73-78
80. MacGowan A.P., Rogers C.A., Holt H.A., Wooton M., and Bowker K.E. Pharmacodynamics of gemifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro pharmacokinetic model of infection. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 45 (2001) 2916-2921
81. Mahmood I. Application of preclinical data to initiate the modified continual reassessment method for maximum tolerated dose-finding trials. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 41 (2001) 19-24
82. Mann D.D., and Frame G.M. Pharmacokinetic study of danofloxacin in cattle and swine. American Journal of Veterinary Research 53 (1992) 1022-1026
83. Martinez-Martinez L., Pascual A., and Jacoby G.A. Quinolone resistance from a transferable plasmid. Lancet 351 (1998) 797-799
84. Matsumoto S., Takahashi M., Kitadai N., and Katae H. A study of metabolites isolated from the urine samples of cats and dogs administered orbifloxacin. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 60 (1998) 1259-1261
85. Matsumoto S., Takahashi M., Yoshida M., Komatsu T., Kitadai N., Horii Y., and Katae H. Absorption, distribution and excretion of orbifloxacin in dogs and cats. Journal of Japanese Veterinary Medical Association 50 (1997) 470-474
86. Maxwell A., and Critchlow S.E. Mode of action. In: Kuhlman J., and Zeiler H.J. (Eds). Quinolone Antibacterials (1998), Springer, Berlin 119-166
87. McKellar Q.A., Gibson I.F., and McCormack R.Z. Pharmacokinetics and tissue disposition of danofloxacin in sheep. Biopharmaceutics and Drug Disposition 19 (1998) 123-129
88. Merck Veterinary Manual. Quinolones. In: Aiello S., and Mays A. (Eds). Title (1998), Merck & Co., Whitehouse Station, NJ 1761-1765
89. Mitscher L.A., Devasthale P., and Zavod R. Structure-activity relationships. In: Hooper D.C., and Wolfson J.S. (Eds). Quinolone Antimicrobial Agents (1993), The American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC 3-51
90. Mizuki Y., Fujiwara I., Yamaguchi T., and Sekine Y. Structure-related inhibitory effect of antimicrobial enoxacin and derivatives on theophylline metabolism by rat liver microsomes. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40 (1996) 1875-1880
91. Mouton J.W. Impact of pharmacodynamics on breakpoint selection for susceptibility testing. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 17 (2003) 579-598
92. Mouton J.W., Dudley M.N., Cars O., Derendorf H., and Drusano G.L. Standardization of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) terminology for anti-infective drugs: an update. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 55 (2005) 601-607
93. Mouton J.W., and Vinks A.A. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modelling of antibacterials in vitro and in vivo using bacterial growth and kill kinetics: the minimum inhibitory concentration versus stationary concentration. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 44 (2005) 201-210
94. Mouton J.W., and Vinks A.A. Relationship between minimum inhibitory concentration and stationary concentration revisited: growth rates and minimum bactericidal concentrations. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 44 (2005) 767-780
95. Muller M., Stab H., Brunner M., Moller JG., Lackner E., and Eichler H.G. Penetration of moxifloxacin into peripheral compartments in humans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 43 (1999) 2345-2349
96. Munoz R., and De La Campa A.G. ParC subunit of DNA topoisomerase IV of Streptococcus pneumoniae is a primary target of fluoroquinolones and cooperates with DNA gyrase A subunit in forming resistance phenotype. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40 (1996) 2252-2257
97. Nakamura S., Nakamura M., Kojima T., and Yoshida H. gyrA and gyrB mutations in quinolone-resistant strains of Escherichia coli. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 33 (1989) 254-255
98. Ng E.Y., Trucksis M., and Hooper D.C. Quinolone resistance mutations in topoisomerase IV: relationship to the flqA locus and genetic evidence that topoisomerase IV is the primary target and DNA gyrase is the secondary target of fluoroquinolones in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40 (1996) 1881-1888
99. Nightingale C.H., Grant E.M., and Quintiliani R. Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of levofloxacin. Chemotherapy 46 Suppl 1 (2000) 6-14
100. Nikaido H., and Vaara M. Molecular basis of bacterial outer membrane permeability. Microbiological Reviews 49 (1985) 1-32
101. Nix D.E., and Schentag J.J. The quinolones: an overview and comparative appraisal of their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 28 (1988) 169-178
102. Oethinger M., Kern W.V., Jellen-Ritter A.S., McMurry L.M., and Levy S.B. Ineffectiveness of topoisomerase mutations in mediating clinically significant fluoroquinolone resistance in Escherichia coli in the absence of the AcrAB efflux pump. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 44 (2000) 10-13
103. Okazaki O., Kojima C., Hakusui H., and Nakashima M. Enantioselective disposition of ofloxacin in humans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 35 (1991) 2106-2109
104. Okusu H., Ma D., and Nikaido H. AcrAB efflux pump plays a major role in the antibiotic resistance phenotype of Escherichia coli multiple-antibiotic-resistance (Mar) mutants. Journal of Bacteriology 178 (1996) 306-308
105. Owens Jr. R.C., and Ambrose P.G. Pharmacodynamics of quinolones. In: Nightingale C.H., Murakawa T., and Owens Jr. R.C. (Eds). Antimicrobial Pharmacodynamics in Theory and Clinical Practice (2002), Marcel Dekker, Inc.,, New York, NY 155-176
106. Owens Jr. R.C., and Ambrose P.G. Torsades de pointes associated with fluoroquinolones. Pharmacotherapy 22 (2002) 663-668
107. Peterson L.R. Quinolone molecular structure-activity relationships: what we have learned about improving antimicrobial activity. Clinical Infectious Diseases 33 Suppl 3 (2001) S180-S186
108. Piddock L.J., Ricci V., McLaren I., and Griggs D.J. Role of mutation in the gyrA and parC genes of nalidixic-acid-resistant salmonella serotypes isolated from animals in the United Kingdom. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 41 (1998) 635-641
109. Polk R. Optimal use of modern antibiotics: emerging trends. Clinical Infectious Diseases 29 (1999) 264-274
110. Polk R.E. Drug-drug interactions with ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones. American Journal of Medicine 87 (1989) 76S-81S
111. Poole K. Efflux-mediated resistance to fluoroquinolones in gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 44 (2000) 2233-2241
112. Preston S.L., Drusano G.L., Berman A.L., Fowler C.L., Chow A.T., Dornseif B., Reichl V., Natarajan J., and Corrado M. Pharmacodynamics of levofloxacin: a new paradigm for early clinical trials. Journal of the American Medical Association 279 (1998) 125-129
113. Rabbaa L., Dautrey S., Colas-Linhart N., Carbon C., and Farinotti R. Absorption of ofloxacin isomers in the rat small intestine. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 41 (1997) 2274-2277
114. Radandt J.M., Marchbanks C.R., and Dudley M.N. Interactions of fluoroquinolones with other drugs: mechanisms, variability, clinical significance, and management. Clinical Infectious Diseases 14 (1992) 272-284
115. Robinson A., Belden J.B., and Lydy M.J. Toxicity of fluoroquinolone antibiotics to aquatic organisms. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 24 (2005) 423-430
116. Rodvold K.A., and Neuhauser M. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones. Pharmacotherapy 21 (2001) 233S-252S
117. a values of peptides and quinolones in liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A 933 (2001) 45-56
118. Satoh Y., Sugiyama A., Chiba K., Tamura K., and Hashimoto K. QT-prolonging effects of sparfloxacin, a fluoroquinolone antibiotic, assessed in the in vivo canine model with monophasic action potential monitoring. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 36 (2000) 510-515
119. Seguin M.A., Papich M.G., Sigle K.J., Gibson N.M., and Levy J.K. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in neonatal kittens. American Journal of Veterinary Research 65 (2004) 350-356
120. Siefert H.M., Domdey-Bette A., Henninger K., Hucke F., Kohlsdorfer C., and Stass H.H. Pharmacokinetics of the 8-methoxyquinolone, moxifloxacin: a comparison in humans and other mammalian species. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 43 Suppl B (1999) 69-76
121. Takiff H.E., Salazar L., Guerrero C., Philipp W., Huang W.M., Kreiswirth B., Cole S.T., Jacobs Jr. W.R., and Telenti A. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis gyrA and gyrB genes and detection of quinolone resistance mutations. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 38 (1994) 773-780
122. Taylor D.E., and Chau A.S. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the gyrA gene from Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus ATCC 27374 and characterization of ciprofloxacin-resistant laboratory and clinical isolates. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 41 (1997) 665-671
123. Tyczkowska K., Hedeen K.M., Aucoin D.P., and Aronson A.L. High-performance liquid chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of enrofloxacin and its primary metabolite ciprofloxacin in canine serum and prostatic tissue. Journal of Chromatography 493 (1989) 337-346
124. Thomas J.K., Forrest A., Bhavnani S.M., Hyatt J.M., Cheng A., Ballow C.H., and Schentag J.J. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 42 (1998) 521-527
125. Toutain P.L. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic integration in drug development and dosage-regimen optimization for veterinary medicine. AAPS Pharmaceutical Science 4 4 (2002) article 38
126. Toutain P.L., del Castillo J.R., and Bousquet-Melou A. The pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic approach to a rational dosage regimen for antibiotics. Research in Veterinary Science 73 (2002) 105-114
127. Tran J.H., and Jacoby G.A. Mechanism of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of United States of the America 99 (2002) 5638-5642
128. Van Bambeke F., Michot J., Van Eldere J., and Tulkens P. Quinolonesin 2005: an update. Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 11 (2005) 256-280
129. Van Boven M., Veldman K.T., de Jong M.C., and Mevius D.J. Rapid selection of quinolone resistance in Campylobacter jejuni but not in Escherichia coli in individually housed broilers. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 52 (2003) 719-723
130. Vancutsem P.M., Babish J.G., and Schwark W.S. The fluoroquinolone antimicrobials: structure, antimicrobial activity, pharmacokinetics, clinical use in domestic animals and toxicity. Cornell Veterinarian 80 (1990) 173-186
131. Vesga O., Conklin R., Stamstad T., and Craig W.A. Pharmacodynamic activity of Bay 12-0839 in animal infection models. Abstracts of the 36th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, New Orleans, LA (1996), American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC 123 Abstract F22
132. Vila J., Ruiz J., Goni P., and De Anta M.T. Detection of mutations in parC in quinolone-resistant clinical isolates of Escherichia coli. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40 (1996) 491-493
133. Wagenlehner F.M., and Naber K.G. Antimicrobial treatment of prostatitis. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 1 (2003) 275-282
134. Walker R.D. The use of fluoroquinolones for companion animal antimicrobial therapy. Australian Veterinary Journal 78 (2000) 84-90
135. Walters J.D., Zhang F., and Nakkula R.J. Mechanisms of fluoroquinolone transport by human neutrophils. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 43 (1999) 2710-2715
136. Wamberg S., Sandgaard N.C.F., and Bie P. Simultaneous determination of total body water and plasma volume in conscious dogs by the indicator dilution principle. Journal of Nutrition 132 (2002) 1711S-1713S
137. Wang M., Tran J.H., Jacoby G.A., Zhang Y., Wang F., and Hooper D.C. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli from Shanghai, China. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 47 (2003) 2242-2248
138. Wang Y., Huang W.M., and Taylor D.E. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the Campylobacter jejuni gyrA gene and characterization of quinolone resistance mutations. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 37 (1993) 457-463
139. Waxman S., Rodriguez C., Gonzalez F., De Vicente M.L., San Andres M.I., and San Andres M.D. Pharmacokinetic behavior of marbofloxacin after intravenous and intramuscular administrations in adult goats. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacological Therapy 24 (2001) 375-378
140. Willmott C.J., Critchlow S.E., Eperon I.C., and Maxwell A. The complex of DNA gyrase and quinolone drugs with DNA forms a barrier to transcription by RNA polymerase. Journal of Molecular Biology 242 (1994) 351-363
141. Wright D.H., Brown G.H., Peterson M.L., and Rotschafer J.C. Application of fluoroquinolone pharmacodynamics. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 46 (2000) 669-683
142. Yoon J.H., Brooks Jr. R.L., Khan A., Pan H., Bryan J., Zhang J., Budsberg S.C., Mueller P.O., and Halper J. The effect of enrofloxacin on cell proliferation and proteoglycans in horse tendon cells. Cell Biology Toxicology 20 (2004) 41-54
143. Yoshida H., Bogaki M., Nakamura M., and Nakamura S. Quinolone resistance-determining region in the DNA gyrase gyrA gene of Escherichia coli. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34 (1990) 1271-1272
144. Yoshida H., Kojima T., Yamagishi J., and Nakamura S. Quinolone-resistant mutations of the gyrA gene of Escherichia coli. Molecular and General Genetics 211 (1988) 1-7
145. Zechiedrich E.L., and Cozzarelli N.R. Roles of topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase in DNA unlinking during replication in Escherichia coli. Genes and Development 9 (1995) 2859-2869
146. Zhanel G.G. Influence of Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Principles on Antibiotic Selection. Current Infectious Disease Report 3 (2001) 29-34