Acanthamoeba: Biology and increasing importance in human health

FEMS Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 564-595

  Khan, Naveed Ahmed ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Acanthamoeba; Disease; Encephalitis; Epidemiology; Keratitis; Pathogenesis

Indexed keywords

2 MORPHOLINO 8 PHENYLCHROMONE; 4 (1 AMINOETHYL) N (4 PYRIDYL)CYCLOHEXANECARBOXAMIDE; ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE; AMPHOTERICIN B; ANALGESIC AGENT; ANTIAMEBIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; BIGUANIDE; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CHLORHEXIDINE GLUCONATE; DEXAMETHASONE; DIAMIDINE DERIVATIVE; FLUCONAZOLE; HEXAMIDINE ISETIONATE; ITRACONAZOLE; KETOCONAZOLE; NEOMYCIN; PENTAMIDINE ISETHIONATE; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE INHIBITOR; PHOSPHOLIPASE; POLY(HEXAMETHYLENEBIGUANIDE); PROPAMIDINE ISETHIONATE; PROTEINASE; RHO KINASE INHIBITOR; RIFAMPICIN; STEROID; SULFADIAZINE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACANTHAMOEBA; ACANTHAMOEBA KERATITIS; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; BACTERIAL SURVIVAL; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; CLASSIFICATION; CYST; ENCEPHALITIS; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; EXPERIMENTAL INFECTION; EYE DISEASE; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HOST SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; INFECTION SENSITIVITY; INFLAMMATION; LIFE CYCLE; MORPHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; PAIN; PARASITE CULTIVATION; PARASITE IDENTIFICATION; PARASITE ISOLATION; PARASITE PREVALENCE; PARASITE VIRULENCE; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PH MEASUREMENT; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PHENOTYPE; PROTOZOAL INFECTION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SKIN INFECTION; STEROID THERAPY; THERMOSTABILITY; TOPICAL TREATMENT; TROPHOZOITE;

ACANTHAMOEBA; ACANTHAMOEBA KERATITIS; AMEBIASIS; ANIMALS; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PROTOZOAL INFECTIONS; DISEASE VECTORS; HOST-PARASITE RELATIONS; HUMANS; SKIN DISEASES, PARASITIC; VIRULENCE;

ACANTHAMOEBA; PROTOZOA;

EID: 33744963421     PISSN: 01686445     EISSN: 15746976     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2006.00023.x     Document Type: Review

References (227)

1. Alfieri SC Correia CE Motegi SA Pral EM 2000 Proteinase activities in total extracts and in medium conditioned by Acanthamoeba polyphaga trophozoites. J Parasitol 86 : 220 227.
2. Alizadeh H Pidherney MS McCulley JP Niederkorn JY 1994 Apoptosis as a mechanism of cytolysis of tumor cells by a pathogenic free-living amoeba. Infect Immun 62 : 1298 1303.
3. Alizadeh H Apte S El-Agha MS Li L Hurt M Howard K Cavanagh HD McCulley JP Niederkorn JY 2001 Tear IgA and serum IgG antibodies against Acanthamoeba in patients with Acanthamoeba keratitis. Cornea 20 : 622 627.
4. Allen PG Dawidowicz EA 1990 Phagocytosis in Acanthamoeba: 1. A mannose receptor is responsible for the binding and phagocytosis of yeast. J Cell Physiol 145 : 508 513.
5. Alsam S Kim KS Stins M Rivas AO Sissons J Khan NA 2003 Acanthamoeba interactions with human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Microb Pathogen 35 : 235 241.
6. Alsam S Sissons J Dudley R Khan NA 2005a Mechanisms associated with Acanthamoeba castellanii (T4) phagocytosis. Parasitol Res 96 : 402 409.
7. Alsam S Sissons J Dudley R Kim KS Khan NA 2005b Parasite-parasite interactions: who is the beneficiary in Escherichia coli interactions with Acanthamoeba? XIth International Meeting on the Biology and Pathogenicity of Free-Living Amoebae, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. Folia Parasitol 52 : Suppl. 9A.
8. Alsam S Sissons J Jayasekera S Khan NA 2005c Extracellular proteases of Acanthamoeba castellanii (encephalitis isolate belonging to T1 genotype) contribute to increased permeability in an in vitro model of the human blood-brain barrier. J Infect 51 : 150 156.
9. Alvord L Court J Davis T Morgan CF Schindhelm K Vogt J Winterton L 1998 Oxygen permeability of a new type of high risk soft contact lens material. Optom Vis Sci 75 : 30 36.
10. Badenoch PR Adams M Coster DJ 1994 Corneal virulence, cytopathic effect on human keratocytes and genetic characterization of Acanthamoeba. Int J Parasitol 25 : 229 239.
11. Band RN Mohrlok S 1973 The cell cycle and induced amitosis in Acanthamoeba. J Protozool 20 : 654 657.
12. Barker J Humphrey TJ Brown MW 1999 Survival of Escherichia coli O157 in a soil protozoan: implications for disease. FEMS Microbiol Lett 173 : 291 295.
13. Barr J 1998 The 1997 report on contact lenses. Cont Lens Spec 1 : 23 33.
14. Beattie TK Tomlinson A Seal DV 2002 Anti-Acanthamoeba efficacy in contact-lens disinfecting systems. Br J Ophthalmol 86 : 1319 1320.
15. Beattie TK Tomlinson A McFadyen AK Seal DV Grimason AM 2003 Enhanced attachment of Acanthamoeba to extended-wear silicone hydrogel contact lenses: a new risk factor for infection? Ophthalmol 110 : 765 771.
16. Bottone EJ Perez AA Gordon RE Qureshi MN 1994 Differential binding capacity and internalisation of bacterial substrates as factors in growth rate of Acanthamoeba spp. J Med Microbiol 40 : 148 154.
17. Bowers B Korn ED 1968 The fine structure of Acanthamoeba castellanii. I. The trophozoite. J Cell Biol 39 : 95 111.
18. Bowers B Korn ED 1974 Localization of lipophosphonoglycan on both sides of Acanthamoeba plasma membrane. J Cell Biol 62 : 533 540.
19. Bowers B Olszewski TE 1972 Pinocytosis in Acanthamoeba castellanii, kinetics and morphology. J Cell Biol 53 : 681 694.
20. Bowers B Olszewski TE 1983 Acanthamoeba discriminates internally between digestible and indigestible particles. J Cell Biol 97 : 317 322.
21. Brennan NA 2002 Is there a question of safety with continuous wear? Clin Exp Optom 85 : 127 140.
22. Brown MRW Barker J 1999 Unexplored reservoirs of pathogenic bacteria: protozoa and biofilms. Trends Microbiol 7 : 46 50.
23. Bryant AE Stevens DL 1996 Phospholipase C and perfringolysin O from Clostridium perfringens upregulate endothelial cell-leukocyte adherence molecule 1 and intercellular leukocyte adherence molecule 1 expression and induce interleukin-8 synthesis in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Infect Immun 64 : 358 362.
24. Bunting M Lorant DE Bryant AE Zimmerman GA McIntyre TM Stevens DL Prescott SM 1997 Alpha toxin from Clostridium perfringens induces proinflammatory changes in endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 100 : 565 574.
25. Byers TJ 1979 Growth, reproduction, and differentiation in Acanthamoeba. Int Rev Cytol 61 : 283 338.
26. Byers TJ Hugo ER Stewart VJ 1990 Genes of Acanthamoeba: DNA, RNA and protein sequences (a review). J Protozool 37 : 17S 25S.
27. Byers TJ Kim BG King LE Hugo ER 1991 Molecular aspects of the cell cycle and encystment of Acanthamoeba. Rev Infect Dis 13 : S373 S384.
28. Cao Z Jefferson MD Panjwani N 1998 Role of carbohydrate-mediated adherence in cytopathogenic mechanisms of Acanthamoeba. J Biol Chem 273 : 15838 15845.
29. Carter WW Gompf SG Toney JF Greene JN Cutolo EP 2004 Disseminated Acanthamoeba sinusitis in a patient with AIDS: a possible role for early antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Read 14 : 41 49.
30. Castellani A 1930 An amoeba found in culture of yeast: preliminary note. J Trop Med Hyg 33 : 160.
31. Cerva L 1989 Acanthamoeba culbertoni and Naegleria fowleri: occurrence of antibodies in man. J Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 33 : 99 103.
32. Chang PC Soong HK 1991 Acanthamoeba keratitis in noncontact lens wearers. Arch Ophthalmol 109 : 463 464.
33. Chappell CL Wright JA Coletta M Newsome AL 2001 Standardized method of measuring Acanthamoeba antibodies in sera from healthy human subjects. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 8 : 724 730.
34. Cheng KH Leung SL Hoekman HW Beekhuis WH Mulder PGH Geerards AJM Kijlstra A 1999 Incidence of contact-lens-associated microbial keratitis and its related morbidity. Lancet 354 : 181 185.
35. Cho JH Na BK Kim TS Song CY 2000 Purification and characterization of an extracellular serine proteinase from Acanthamoeba castellanii. IUBMB Life 50 : 209 214.
36. Cirillo JD Falkow S Tompkins LS Bermudez LE 1997 Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence. Infect Immun 65 : 3759 3767.
37. Cohen EJ Parlato CJ Arentsen JJ Genvert GI Eagle RC Wieland MR Laibson PR 1987 Medical and surgical treatment of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol 103 : 615 625.
38. Cordingley JS Wills RA Villemez CL 1996 Osmolarity is an independent trigger of Acanthamoeba castellanii differentiation. J Cell Biochem 61 : 167 171.
39. Culbertson CG Smith JW Miner JR 1958 Acanthamoeba observation on animal pathogenicity. Science 127 : 1506.
40. Culbertson CG Smith JW Cohen HK Miner JR 1959 Experimental infection of mice and monkeys by Acanthamoeba. Am J Pathol 35 : 185 197.
41. Cursons RTM Brown TJ Keys EA 1978 Virulence of pathogenic free-living amoebae. J Parasitol 64 : 744 745.
42. Cursons RT Brown TJ Keys EA Moriarty KM Till D 1980 Immunity to pathogenic free-living amoebae: role of humoral antibody. Infect Immun 29 : 401 407.
43. Dart JKG Stapleton F Minassian D 1991 Contact lenses and other risk factors in microbial keratitis. Lancet 338 : 650 653.
44. David JT 1993 Opportunistically Pathogenic Free-Living Amoebae. Parasitic Protozoa, Vol. 3. 2nd edn. Academic Press Inc., San Diego.
45. Davis D Edwards JE Mitchell AP Ibrahim AS 2000 Candida albicans RIM101 pH response pathway is required for host pathogen interactions. Infect Immun 68 : 5953 5959.
46. De Bernardis F Muhlschlegel FA Cassone A Fonzi WA 1998 The pH of the host niche controls gene expression in and virulence of Candida albicans. Infect Immun 66 : 3317 3325.
47. De Jonckheere JF 1983 Growth characteristics, cytopathic effect in cell culture and virulence in mice of 36 type strains belonging to 19 different Acanthamoeba spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 39 : 681 685.
48. De Jonckheere J 1987 Taxonomy. Amphizoic Amoebae Human Pathology Rondanelli EG, ed.), pp. 25 48. Piccin Nuova Libraria, Padua, Italy.
49. De Jonckheere JF 2002 A century of research on the Amoeboflagellate Genus Naegleria. Acta Protozool 41 : 309 342.
50. Dennis EA Rhee SG Billah MM Hannun YA 1991 Role of phospholipase in generating lipid second messengers in signal transduction. FASEB J 5 : 2068 2077.
51. Devonshire P Munro FA Abernethy C Clark BJ 1993 Microbial contamination of contact lens cases in the west of Scotland. Br J Ophthalmol 77 : 41 45.
52. Douglas M 1930 Notes on the classification of the amoeba found by Castellani on culture of a yeast-like fungus. J Trop Med Hyg 33 : 258 259.
53. Drozanski W 1956 Fatal bacterial infection in soil amoebae. Acta Microbiol Pol 5 : 315 317.
54. Dudley R Matin A Alsam S Sissons J Mahsood AH Khan NA 2005 Acanthamoeba isolates belonging to T1, T2, T3, T4 but not T7 encyst in response to increased osmolarity and cysts do not bind to human corneal epithelial cells. Acta Tropica 95 : 100 108.
55. Duguid IG Dart JK Morlet N Allan BD Matheson M Ficker L Tuft S 1997 Outcome of Acanthamoeba keratitis treated with polyhexamethyl biguanide and propamidine. Ophthalmol 104 : 1587 1592.
56. Epstein RJ Wilson LA Visvesvara GS Plourde EG Jr.. 1986 Rapid diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis from corneal scrapings using indirect fluorescent antibody staining. Arch Ophthalmol 104 : 1318 1321.
57. Essig A Heinemann M Simnacher U Marre R 1997 Infection of Acanthamoeba castellanii by Chlamydia pneumoniae. Appl Environ Microbiol 63 : 1396 1399.
58. Ferrante A 1991 Immunity to Acanthamoeba. Rev Infect Dis 13 : S403 S409.
59. Ferrante A Allison AC 1983 Alternative pathway activation of complement by African trypanosomes lacking a glycoprotein coat. Parasite Immunol 5 : 491 498.
60. Ferrante A Bates EJ 1988 Elastase in the pathogenic free-living amoebae, Naegleria and Acanthamoeba spp. Infect Immun 56 : 3320 3321.
61. Ferrante A Rowan-Kelly B 1983 Activation of the alternative pathway of complement by Acanthamoeba culbertsoni. Clin Exp Immunol 54 : 477 485.
62. Ficker L 1988 Acanthamoeba keratitis - The quest for a better prognosis. Eye S37 S45.
63. Ficker L Seal D Warhurst D Wright P 1990 Acanthamoeba keratitis: resistance to medical therapy. Eye 4 : 835 838.
64. Fleiszig SM Zaidi TS Ramphal R Pier GB 1994 Modulation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa adherence to the corneal surface by mucus. Infect Immun 62 : 1799 1804.
65. Garate M Cao Z Bateman E Panjwani N 2004 Cloning and characterization of a novel mannose-binding protein of Acanthamoeba. J Biol Chem 279 : 29849 29856.
66. Garate M Marchant J Cubillos I Cao Z Khan NA Panjwani N 2006 Pathogenicity of Acanthamoeba is associated with the expression of the mannose-binding protein. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 47 : 1056 1062.
67. Garner A 1993 Pathogenesis of acanthamoebic keratitis: hypothesis based on a histological analysis of 30 cases. Br J Ophthalmol 77 : 366 370.
68. Giese MJ Weissman BA 2002 Contact lens associated corneal infections. Where do we go from here? Clin Exp Optom 85 : 141 148.
69. Gray TB Cursons RT Sherwan JF Rose PR 1995 Acanthamoeba bacterial, and fungal contamination of contact lens storage cases. Br J Ophthalmol 79 : 601 605.
70. Greub G Raoult D 2002 Parachlamydiaceae: potential emerging pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis 8 : 625 630.
71. Greub G Raoult D 2004 Microorganisms resistant to free-living amoebae. Clin Microbiol Rev 17 : 413 433.
72. Gudmundsson OG Woodward DF Fowler SA Allansmith MR 1985 Identification of proteins in contact lens surface deposits by immunofluorescence microscopy. Arch Ophthalmol 103 : 196 197.
73. Hadas E Mazur T 1993 Biochemical markers of pathogenicity and virulence of Acanthamoeba sp. strains. Trop Med Parasitol 44 : 197 200.
74. Hanel H Kirsch R Schmidts HL Kottmann H 1995 New systematically active antimycotics from the beta-blocker category. Mycoses 38 : 251 264.
75. Harrington KA Hormaeche CE 1986 Expression of the innate resistance gene Ity in mouse Kupffer cells infected with Salmonella typhimurium in vitro. Microb Pathogen 1 : 269 274.
76. Hay J Kirkness CM Seal DV Wright P 1994 Drug resistance and Acanthamoeba keratitis: the quest for alternative protozoal chemotherapy. Eye 8 : 555 563.
77. He YG Neiderkorn JY McCulley JP Stewart GL Meyer DR Silvany R Doughtery J 1990 In vivo and in vitro collagenolytic activity of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Invest Opthal Visual Sci 31 : 2235 2240.
78. Heath KV Frank O Montaner JS O'Shaughnessy MV Schechter MT Hogg RS 1998 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) mortality in industrialized nations, 1987-1991. Int J Epidemiol 27 : 685 690.
79. Hong YC Hwang MY Yun HC Yu HS Kong HH Yong TS Chung DI 2002 Isolation and characterization of a cDNA encoding a mammalian cathepsin L-like cysteine proteinase from Acanthamoeba healyi. Kor J Parasitol 40 : 17 24.
80. Hong YC Lee WM Kong HH Jeong HJ Chung DI 2004 Molecular cloning and characterization of a cDNA encoding a laminin-binding protein (AhLBP) from Acanthamoeba healyi. Exp Parasitol 106 : 95 102.
81. Huang ZH Ferrante A Carter R 1999 Serum antibodies to Balamuthia mandrillaris, a free-living amoeba recently demonstrated to cause granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. J Infect Dis 179 : 1305 1308.
82. Hurt M Apte S Leher H Howard K Niederkorn J Alizadeh H 2001 Exacerbation of Acanthamoeba keratitis in animals treated with anti-macrophage inflammatory protein 2 or antineutrophil antibodies. Infect Immun 69 : 2988 2995.
83. Hurt M Proy V Niederkorn JY Alizadeh H 2003 The interaction of Acanthamoeba castellanii cysts with macrophages and neutrophils. J Parasitol 89 : 565 572.
84. Ito S Chang RS Pollard TD 1969 Cytoplasmic distribution of DNA in a strain of hartmannellid amoeba. J Protozool 16 : 638 645.
85. Jager BV Stamm WP 1972 Brain abscesses caused by free-living amoeba probably of the genus Hartmannella in a patient with Hodgkin's disease. Lancet ii : 1343 1345.
86. Jahnes WG Fullmer HM Li CP 1957 Free-living amoebae as contaminants in monkey kidney tissue culture. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 96 : 484 488.
87. Jaison PL Cao Z Panjwani N 1998 Binding of Acanthamoeba to [corrected] mannose-glycoproteins of corneal epithelium: effect of injury. Curr Eye Res 17 : 770 776.
88. Jimenez C Portela RA Mellado M Rodriguez-Frade JM Collard J Serrano A Martinez AC Avila J Carrera AC 2000 Role of the PI3K regulatory subunit in the control of actin organization and cell migration. J Cell Biol 151 : 249 262.
89. John DT John RA 1994 Cryopreservation of pathogenic free-living amebae. Folia Parasitol 41 : 110 114.
90. Johnson HA Thomas NR 2002 Polyhydroxylated azepanes as new motifs for DNA minor groove binding agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 12 : 237 241.
91. Kahane S Dvoskin B Mathias M Friedman MG 2001 Infection of Acanthamoeba polyphaga with Simkania negevensis and S. negevensis survival within amoebal cysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 67 : 4789 4795.
92. Kameyama S Sato H Murata R 1975 The role of alpha-toxin of Clostridium perfringens in experimental gas gangrene in guinea pigs. Jpn J Med Sci Biol 25 : 200.
93. Khan NA 2001 Pathogenicity, morphology and differentiation of Acanthamoeba. Curr Microbiol 43 : 391 395.
94. Khan NA 2003 Pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba infections. Microb Pathogen 34 : 277 285.
95. Khan NA 2006 Parasitic protists. Instant Notes in Microbiology. 3rd edn, pp. 241 269. Taylor & Francis, Oxford, UK.
96. Khan NA Paget TA 2002 Molecular tools for speciation and epidemiological studies of Acanthamoeba. Curr Microbiol 44 : 444 449.
97. Khan NA Jarroll EL Panjwani N Cao Z Paget TA 2000 Proteases as markers of differentiation of pathogenic and nonpathogenic Acanthamoeba. J Clin Microbiol 38 : 2858 2861.
98. Khan NA Jarroll EL Paget TA 2001 Acanthamoeba can be differentiated by the polymerase chain reaction and simple plating assays. Curr Microbiol 43 : 204 208.
99. Khan NA Jarroll EL Paget TA 2002 Molecular and physiological differentiation between pathogenic and nonpathogenic Acanthamoeba. Curr Microbiol 45 : 197 202.
100. Kim KH Shin CO Im K 1993 Natural killer cell activity in mice infected with free-living amoeba with reference to their pathogenicity. Kor J Parasitol 31 : 239 248.
101. Klotz SI Misra RP Butrus SI 1987 Carbohydrate deposits on the surfaces of worn extended-wear soft contact lenses. Arch Ophthalmol 105 : 974 977.
102. Kong HH Kim TH Chung DI 2000 Purification and characterization of a secretory proteinase of Acanthamoeba healyi isolates from GAE. J Parasitol 86 : 12 17.
103. Korn ED Olivecrona T 1971 Composition of an amoeba plasma membrane. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 45 : 90 97.
104. Korn ED Dearborn DG Wright PL 1974 Lipophosphonoglycan of the plasma membrance of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Isolation from whole amoebae and identification of the water-soluble products of acid hydrolysis. J Biol Chem 249 : 3335 3341.
105. Kotting J Berger MR Unger C Eibl H 1992 Alkylphosphocholines: influence of structural variations on biodistribution of antineoplastically active concentrations. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 30 : 105 112.
106. Krishna-Prasad BN Gupta SK 1978 Preliminary report on engulfment and retention of mycobacteria by trophozoites of axenically grown Acanthamoeba castellanii Douglas. Curr Sci 47 : 245 247.
107. La Scola B Raoult D 2001 Survival of Coxiella burnetii within free-living amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii. Clin Microbiol Infect 7 : 75 79.
108. Lam DSC Houang E Fan SP Lyon D Seal D Wong E, Hong Kong Microbial Keratitis Study Group 2002 Incidence and risk factors for microbial keratitis in Hong Kong: comparison with Europe and North America. Eye 16 : 608 618.
109. Landers P Kerr KG Rowbotham TJ Tipper JL Keig PM Ingham E Denton M 2000 Survival and growth of Burkholderia cepacia within the free-living amoeba Acanthamoeba polyphaga. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 19 : 121 123.
110. Larkin DF Kilvington S Easty DL 1990 Contamination of contact lens storage cases by Acanthamoeba and bacteria. Br J Ophthalmol 74 : 133 135.
111. Larkin DFP Kilvington S Dart JKG 1992 Treatment of Acanthamoeba keratitis with polyhexamethylene biguanide. Ophthalmol 99 : 185 191.
112. Leher H Zaragoza F Taherzadeh S Alizadeh H Niederkorn JY 1999 Monoclonal IgA antibodies protect against Acanthamoeba keratitis. Exp Eye Res 69 : 75 84.
113. Lehmann OJ Green SM Morlet N Kilvington S Keys MF Matheson MM Dart JK McGill JI Watt PJ 1998 Polymerase chain reaction analysis of corneal epithelial and tear samples in the diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 39 : 1261 1265.
114. Lim L Coster DJ Badenoch PR 2000 Antimicrobial susceptibility of 19 Australian corneal isolates of Acanthamoeba. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 28 : 119 124.
115. Lloyd D Turner NA Khunkitti W Hann AC Furr JR Russell AD 2001 Encystation in Acanthamoeba castellanii: development of biocide resistance. J Eukaryot Microbiol 48 : 11 16.
116. Lorenzo-Morales J Ortega-Rivas A Foronda P Abreu-Acosta N Ballart D Martinez E Valladares B 2005 RNA interference (RNAi) for the silencing of extracellular serine proteases genes in Acanthamoeba: molecular analysis and effect on pathogenecity. Mol Biochem Parasitol 144 : 10 15.
117. Ly TM Muller HE 1990 Ingested Listeria monocytogenes survive and multiply in protozoa. J Med Microbiol 33 : 51 54.
118. Mackay DJ Hall A 1998 Rho GTPases. J Biol Chem 273 : 20685 20688.
119. Maghsood AH Sissons J Rezaian M Nolder D Warhurst D Khan NA 2005 Acanthamoeba genotype T4 from the UK and Iran and isolation of the T2 genotype from clinical isolates. J Med Microbiol 54 : 755 759.
120. Marciano-Cabral F Cabral G 2003 Acanthamoeba spp. as agents of disease in humans. Clin Microbiol Rev 16 : 273 307.
121. Marciano-Cabral F Toney DM 1998 The interaction of Acanthamoeba spp. with activated macrophages and with macrophage cell lines. J Eukaryot Microbiol 45 : 452 458.
122. Marolda CL Hauroder B John MA Michel R Valvano MA 1999 Intracellular survival and saprophytic growth of isolates from the Burkholderia cepacia complex in free-living amoebae. Microbiol 145 : 1509 1517.
123. Martinez AJ 1985 Free-Living Amebas: Natural History, Prevention, Diagnosis, Pathology and Treatment of Disease. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
124. Martinez AJ 1991 Infections of the central nervous system due to Acanthamoeba. Rev Infect Dis 13 : S399 S402.
125. Martinez AJ Visvesvara GS 1991 Laboratory diagnosis of pathogenic free-living amoebas: Naegleria, Acanthamoeba, and Leptomyxid. Clin Lab Med 11 : 861 872.
126. Martinez AJ Visvesvara GS 1997 Free-living, amphizoic and opportunistic amebas. Brain Pathol 7 : 583 598.
127. Martinez MS Gonzalez-Mediero G Santiago P Rodriguez de Lope A Diz J Conde C Visvesvara GS 2000 Granulomatous amebic encephalitis in a patient with AIDS: isolation of Acanthamoeba sp. Group II from brain tissue and successful treatment with sulfadiazine and fluconazole. J Clin Microbiol 38 : 3892 3895.
128. Mattana A Bennardini F Usai S Fiori PL Franconi F Cappuccinelli P 1997 Acanthamoeba castellanii metabolites increase the intracellular calcium level and cause cytotoxicity in wish cells. Microb Pathog 23 : 85 93.
129. Mattana A Cappai V Alberti L Serra C Fiori PL Cappuccinelli P 2002 ADP and other metabolites released from Acanthamoeba castellanii lead to human monocytic cell death through apoptosis and stimulate the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. Infect Immun 70 : 4424 4432.
130. Mazur T Hadas E 1994 The effect of passages of Acanthamoeba strains through mice tissues on their virulence and its biochemical markers. Parasitol Res 80 : 431 434.
131. Mazur T Hadas E Iwanicka I 1995 The duration of the cyst stage and the viability and virulence of Acanthamoeba isolates. Trop Med Parasitol 46 : 106 108.
132. McClellan K Howard K Niederkorn JY Alizadeh H 2001 Effect of steroids on Acanthamoeba cysts and trophozoites. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42 : 2885 2893.
133. McClellan K Howard K Mayhew E Niederkorn J Alizadeh H 2002 Adaptive immune responses to Acanthamoeba cysts. Exp Eye Res 75 : 285 293.
134. Michel R Burghardt H Bergmann H 1995 Acanthamoeba naturally intracellularly infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, after their isolation from a microbiologically contaminated drinking water system in a hospital. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed 196 : 532 544.
135. Mitra MM Alizadeh H Gerard RD Niederkorn JY 1995 Characterization of a plasminogen activator produced by Acanthamoeba castellanii. Mol Biochem Parasitol 73 : 157 164.
136. Mitro K Bhagavathiammai A Zhou OM Bobbett G McKerrow JH Chokshi R Chokshi B James ER 1994 Partial characterization of the proteolytic secretions of Acanthamoeba polyphaga. Exp Parasitol 78 : 377 385.
137. Moore MB McCulley JP 1989 Acanthamoeba keratitis associated with contact lenses: six consecutive cases of successful management. Br J Ophthalmol 73 : 271 275.
138. Morton LD McLaughlin GL Whiteley HE 1991 Effect of temperature, amebic strain and carbohydrates on Acanthamoeba adherence to corneal epithelium in vitro. Infect Immun 59 : 3819 3822.
139. Mounier J Laurent V Hall A Fort P Carlier MF Sansonetti PJ Egile C 1999 Rho family GTPases control entry of Shigella flexneri into epithelial cells but not intracellular motility. J Cell Sci 112 : 2069 2080.
140. Murdoch D Gray TB Cursons R Parr D 1998 Acanthamoeba keratitis in New Zealand, including two cases with in vivo resistance to polyhexamethylene biguanide. Aust NZ J Ophthalmol 26 : 231 236.
141. Na BK Kim JC Song CY 2001 Characterization and pathogenetic role of proteinase from Acanthamoeba castellanii. Microb Pathog 30 : 39 48.
142. Na BK Cho JH Song CY Kim TS 2002 Degradation of immunoglobulins, protease inhibitors and interleukin-1 by a secretory proteinase of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Kor J Parasitol 40 : 93 99.
143. Nagington J Watson PG Playfair TJ McGill J Jones BR Steele AD 1974 Amoebic infections of the eye. Lancet ii : 1537 1540.
144. Nassif KF 1996 Ocular Surface Defense Mechanisms. Infections of the Eye. Little, Brown and Company, New York.
145. Neff RJ Neff RH 1969 The biochemistry of amoebic encystment. Symp Soc Exp Biol 23 : 51 81.
146. Niederkorn JY Alizadeh H Leher H McCulley JP 1999 The pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Microbes Infect 1 : 437 443.
147. Nilsson SEG Montan PG 1994 The annualized incidence of contact lens induced keratitis in Sweden and its relation to lens type and wear schedule: results of a three-month prospective study. CLAO J 20 : 225 230.
148. Odom A Del Poeta M Perfect J Heitman J 1997a The immunosuppressant FK506 and its nonimmunosuppressive analog L-685,818 are toxic to Cryptococcus neoformans by inhibition of a common target protein. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41 : 156 161.
149. Odom A Muir S Lim E Toffaletti DL Perfect J Heitman J 1997b Calcineurin is required for virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans. EMBO J 16 : 2576 2589.
150. Oishi K Raynor RL Charp PA Kuo JF 1988 Regulation of protein kinase C by lysophospholipids. Potential role in signal transduction. J Biol Chem 263 : 6865 6871.
151. Page FC 1967a Taxonomic criteria for limax amoebae, with descriptions of 3 new species of Hartmannella and 3 of Vahlkampfia. J Protozool 14 : 499 521.
152. Page FC 1967b Re-definition of the genus Acanthamoeba with descriptions of three species. J Protozool 14 : 709 724.
153. Page FC 1988 A New Key to Fresh Water and Soil Amoebae. Freshwater Biological Association Scientific Publications, Cumbria, UK.
154. Peng Z Omaruddin R Bateman E 2005 Stable transfection of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Biochim Biophys Acta 1743 : 93 100.
155. Perez-Santonja JJ Kilvington S Hughes R Tufail A Metheson M Dart JKG 2003 Persistently culture positive Acanthamoeba keratitis; in vivo resistance and in vitro sensitivity. Ophthalmol 110 : 1593 1600.
156. Perrine D Chenu JP Georges P Lancelot JC Saturnino C Robba M 1995 Amoebicidal efficiencies of various diamidines against two strains of Acanthamoeba polyphaga. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 39 : 339 342.
157. Pettit DA Williamson J Cabral GA Marciano-Cabral F 1996 In vitro destruction of nerve cell cultures by Acanthamoeba spp.: a transmission and scanning electron microscopy study. J Parasitol 82 : 769 777.
158. Poggio EC Glynn RJ Schein OD Seddon JM Shannon MJ Scardino VA Kenyon KR 1989 The incidence of ulcerative keratitis among users of daily-wear and extended-wear soft contact lenses. N Engl J Med 321 : 779 783.
159. Pozio E Morales MA 2005 The impact of HIV-protease inhibitors on opportunistic parasites. Trends Parasitol 21 : 58 63.
160. Preston TM Richard H Wotton RS 2001 Locomotion and feeding of Acanthamoeba at the water-air interface of ponds. FEMS Letters 194 : 143 147.
161. Proca-Ciobanu M Lupascu GH Petrovici A Ionescu MD 1975 Electron microscopic study of a pathogenic Acanthamoeba castellani strain: the presence of bacterial endosymbionts. Int J Parasitol 5 : 49 56.
162. Pussard M 1966 Le genre Acanthamoeba Volkonsky 1931 (Hartmannellidae- Amoebida). Protistologica 2 : 71 93.
163. Pussard M Pons R 1977 Morphologies de la paroi kystique et taxonomie du genre Acanthamoeba (Protozoa, Amoebida). Protistologica 13 : 557 610.
164. Qu XD Leher RL 1998 Secretory phospholipase A2 is the principal bactericide for Staphylococci and other gram positive bacteria in human tears. Infect Immun 6 : 2791 2797.
165. Radford CF Bacon AS Dart JK Minassian DC 1995 Risk factors for Acanthamoeba keratitis in contact lens users: a case-control study. Br Med J 310 : 1567 1570.
166. Radford CF Lehmann OJ Dart JK 1998 Acanthamoeba keratitis: multicentre survey in England 1992-6. National Acanthamoeba Keratitis Study Group. Br J Ophthalmol 82 : 1387 1392.
167. Radford CF Minassian DC Dart JK 2002 Acanthamoeba keratitis in England and Wales: incidence, outcome, and risk factors. Br J Ophthalmol 86 : 536 542.
168. Rowbotham TJ 1980 Preliminary report on the pathogenicity of Legionella pneumophila for freshwater and soil amoebae. J Clin Pathol 33 : 1179 1183.
169. Russell AD Chopra I 1996 Understanding Antibacterial Action and Resistance, 2nd edn, pp. 113 118. Ellis Horwood, London.
170. Sawyer T 1971 Acanthamoeba griffini a new species of marine amoeba. J Protozool 18 : 650 654.
171. Sawyer TK Griffin JL 1975 A proposed new family, Acanthamoebidae (order Amoebida), for certain cyst-forming filose amoebae. Trans Am Microsc Soc 94 : 93 98.
172. Schroeder JM Booton GC Hay J Niszl IA Seal DV Markus MB Fuerst PA Byers TJ 2001 Use of subgenic 18S ribosomal DNA PCR and sequencing for genus and genotype identification of Acanthamoebae from humans with keratitis and from sewage sludge. J Clin Microbiol 39 : 1903 1911.
173. Schuster FL Visvesvara GS 2004 Free-living amoebae as opportunistic and nonopportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. Int J Parasitol 34 : 1 27.
174. Seal DV Hay J Kirkness CM 1995 Chlorhexidine or polyhexamethylene biguanide for Acanthamoeba keratitis. Lancet 345 : 136.
175. Seal DV Kirkness CM Bennett HGB 1999 Population-based cohort study of microbial keratitis in Scotland: incidence and features. Cont Lens Ant Eye 22 : 49 57.
176. Seijo Martinez M Gonzalez-Mediero G Santiago P De Lope Rodriguez A Diz J Conde C Visvesvara GS 2000 Granulomatous amebic encephalitis in a patient with AIDS: isolation of Acanthamoeba sp. Group II from brain tissue and successful treatment with sulfadiazine and fluconazole. J Clin Microbiol 38 : 3892 3895.
177. Serhan CN Haeggstrom JZ Leslie CC 1996 Lipid mediator networks in cell signaling: update and impact of cytokines. FASEB J 10 : 1147 1158.
178. Sharma S Srinivasan M George C 1990 Acanthamoeba keratitis in noncontact lens wearers. Arch Ophthalmol 108 : 676 678.
179. Shin HJ Cho MS Jung SY Kim HI Park S Seo JH Yoo JC Im KI 2001 Cytopathic changes in rat microglial cells induced by pathogenic Acanthamoeba culbertsoni: morphology and cytokine release. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 8 : 837 840.
180. Simmons PA Tomlinson A Seal DV 1998 The role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm in the attachment of Acanthamoeba to four types of hydrogel contact lens materials. Optom Vis Sci 75 : 860 866.
181. Singh BN 1950 Nuclear division in nine species of small free-living amoebae and its bearing on the classification of the order Amoebida. Phil Trans R Soc Lond [Biol] 236 : 405 461.
182. Singh BN Das SR 1970 Studies on pathogenic and nonpathogenic small free-living amoebae and the bearing of nuclear division on the classification of the order Amoebida. Philos Trans R Soc Lond [Biol] 259 : 435 476.
183. Sissons J Alsam S Jayasekera S Kim KS Stins M Khan NA 2004a Acanthamoeba induces cell-cycle arrest in the host cells. J Med Microbiol 53 : 711 717.
184. Sissons J Alsam S Jayasekera S Khan NA 2004b Ecto-ATPases of clinical and nonclinical isolates of Acanthamoeba. Microb Pathogen 37 : 231 239.
185. Sissons J Alsam S Goldsworthy G Lightfoot M Jarroll EL Khan NA 2005a Identification and properties of a novel metalloprotease, isolated from an Acanthamoeba granulomatous encephalitis isolate belonging to T1 genotype. XIth International Meeting on the Biology and Pathogenicity of Free-Living Amoebae, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. Folia Parasitologica 52: Suppl. 8A-9A.
186. Sissons J Kim KS Stins M Jayasekera S Alsam S Khan NA 2005b Acanthamoeba castellanii induces host cell death via a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent mechanism. Infect Immun 73 : 2704 2708.
187. Sissons J Rivas AO Morales JL Alsam S Khan NA 2005c Effects of human serum on the virulence properties of Acanthamoeba. XIth International Meeting on the Biology and Pathogenicity of Free-Living Amoebae, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. Folia Parasitologica 52: Suppl. 11A.
188. Stehr-Green JK Baily TM Visvesvara GS 1989 The epidemiology of Acanthamoeba keratitis in the United States. Am J Ophthalmol 107 : 331 336.
189. Steinert M Birkness KK White E Fields B Quinn F 1998 Mycobacterium avium bacilli grow saprozoically in coculture with Acanthamoeba polyphaga and survive within cyst walls. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 : 2256 2261.
190. Stewart GL Kim I Shupe K Alizadeh H Silvany R McCulley JP Niederkorn JY 1992 Chemotactic response of macrophages to Acanthamoeba castellanii antigen and antibody-dependent macrophage-mediated killing of the parasite. J Parasitol 78 : 849 855.
191. Stewart GL Shupe KK Kim I Silvany RE Alizadeh H McCulley JP Niederkorn JY 1994 Antibody-dependent neutrophil-mediated killing of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Int J Parasitol 24 : 739 742.
192. Tanaka Y Suguri S Harada M Hayabara T Suzumori K Ohta N 1994 Acanthamoeba-specific human T-cell clones isolated from healthy individuals. Parasitol Res 80 : 549 553.
193. Taylor WM Pidherney MS Alizadeh H Niederkorn JY 1995 In vitro characterization of Acanthamoeba castellanii cytopathic effect. J Parasitol 81 : 603 609.
194. Thakur A Willcox DP 2000 Contact lens wear alters the production of
195. Thom S Warhurst D Drasar BS 1992 Association of Vibrio cholerae with fresh water amoebae. J Med Microbiol 36 : 303 306.
196. Thyrell L Hjortsberg L Arulampalam V Panaretakis T Uhles S Zhivotovsky B Leibiger I Grander D Pokrovskaja K 2004 Interferon-alpha induced apoptosis in tumor cells is mediated through PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway. J Biol Chem 279 : 24152 24162.
197. Tomlinson G Jones EA 1962 Isolation of cellulose from the cyst wall of a soil amoeba. Biochim Biophys Acta 63 : 194 200.
198. Tomlinson A Simmons PA Seal DV McFadyen AK 2000 Salicylate inhibition of Acanthamoeba attachment to contact lenses: a model to reduce risk of infection. Ophthalmol 107 : 112 117.
199. Toney DM Marciano-Cabral F 1998 Resistance of Acanthamoeba species to complement lysis. J Parasitol 84 : 338 344.
200. Torno MS Jr. Babapour R Gurevitch A Witt MD 2000 Cutaneous acanthamoebiasis in AIDS. J Am Acad Dermatol 42 : 351 354.
201. Tripathi RC Tripathi BJ 1984 Lens spoilage. Contact Lenses: The Contact Lens Assoc. Ophth. Guide to Basic Science and Clinical Practice Diabezies O, ed.), pp. 45.1 45.33. Grune and Stratton, Orlando, FL.
202. Turner NA Russell AD Furr JR Lloyd D 2000 Emergence of resistance to biocides during differentiation of Acanthamoeba castellanii. J Antimicrob Chem 46 : 27 34.
203. van Klink F Alizadeh H Stewart GL Pidherney MS Silvany RE He Y McCulley JP Niederkorn JY 1992 Characterization and pathogenic potential of a soil isolate and an ocular isolate of Acanthamoeba castellanii in relation to Acanthamoeba keratitis. Curr Eye Res 11 : 1207 2012.
204. van Klink F Alizadeh H He Y Mellon JA Silvany RE McCulley JP Niederkorn JY 1993 The role of contact lenses, trauma, and Langerhans cells in a Chinese hamster model of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 34 : 1937 1944.
205. van Klink F Taylor WM Alizadeh H Jager MJ van Rooijen N Niederkorn JY 1996 The role of macrophages in Acanthamoeba keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 37 : 1271 1281.
206. van Klink F Leher H Jager MJ Alizadeh H Taylor W Niederkorn JY 1997 Systemic immune response to Acanthamoeba keratitis in the Chinese hamster. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 5 : 235 244.
207. Vemuganti GK Reddy K Iftekhar G Garg P Sharma S 2004 Keratocyte loss in corneal infection through apoptosis: a histologic study of 59 cases. BMC Ophthalmol 4 : 16.
208. Victoria EJ Korn ED 1975a Plasma membrane and soluble lysophospholipases of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Arch Biochem Biophys 171 : 255 258.
209. Victoria EJ Korn ED 1975b Enzymes of phospholipid metabolism in the plasma membrane of Acanthamoeba castellanii. J Lipid Res 16 : 54 60.
210. Visvesvara GS 1991 Classification of Acanthamoeba. Rev Infect Dis 13 : 369 372.
211. Visvesvara GS Martinez AJ Schuster FL Leitch GJ Wallace SV Sawyer TK Anderson M 1990 Leptomyxid ameba, a new agent of amebic meningoencephalitis in humans and animals. J Clin Microbiol 28 : 2750 2756.
212. Visvesvara GS Schuster FL Martinez AJ 1993 Balamuthia mandrillaris N. G., N. Sp., agent of amebic meningoencephalitis in humans and other animals. J Eukaryot Microbiol 40 : 504 514.
213. Volkonsky M 1931 Hartmanella castellanii Douglas, et classification des hartmannelles. Arch Zool Exp Gen 72 : 317 339.
214. Walochnik J Obwaller A Aspock H 2000 Correlations between morphological, molecular biological, and physiological characteristics in clinical and nonclinical isolates of Acanthamoeba spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 66 : 4408 4413.
215. Walochnik J Obwaller A Haller-Schober EM Aspock H 2001 Anti-Acanthamoeba IgG, IgM, and IgA immunoreactivities in correlation to strain pathogenicity. Parasitol Res 87 : 651 658.
216. Walochnik J Duchene M Seifert K Obwaller A Hottkowitz T Wiedermann G Eibl H Aspock H 2002 Cytotoxic activities of alkylphosphocholines against clinical isolates of Acanthamoeba spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46 : 695 701.
217. Watanabe R Ishibashi Y Hommura S Ishii K 1994 Acanthamoeba isolation from contact lens solution of contact lens wearers without keratitis. J Jpn Ophthalmol Soc 98 : 477 480.
218. Weekers PHH Bodelier PLE Wijen JPH Vogels GD 1993 Effects of grazing by the free-living soil amoebae, Acanthamoeba catellanii, Acanthamoeba polyphaga, and Hartmannella vermiformis on various bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 59 : 2317 2319.
219. Weisman RA 1976 Differentiation in Acanthamoeba castellanii. Annu Rev Microbiol 30 : 189 219.
220. Weisman B Mondino B 2002 Risk factors for contact lens associated microbial keratitis. Cont Lens Ant Eye 25 : 3 9.
221. Wennström S Hawkins P Cooke F Hara K Yonezawa K Kasuga M Jackson T Claesson-Welsh L Stephens L 1994 Activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase is required for PDGF-stimulated membrane ruffling. Curr Biol 4 : 385 396.
222. Winchester K Mathers WD Sutphin JE Daley TE 1995 Diagnosis of Acanthamoeba keratitis in vivo with confocal microscopy. Cornea 14 : 10 17.
223. Winiecka-Krusnell J Wreiber K von Euler A Engstrand L Linder E 2002 Free-living amoebae promote growth and survival of Helicobacter pylori. Scand J Infect Dis 34 : 253 256.
224. Wright P Warhurst D Jones BR 1985 Acanthamoeba keratitis successfully treated medically. Br J Ophthalmol 69 : 778 782.
225. Yang Z Cao Z Panjwani N 1997 Pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba keratitis: carbohydrate mediated host-parasite interactions. Infect Immun 65 : 439 445.
226. Yin J Henney HR Jr. 1997 Stable transfection of Acanthamoeba. Can J Microbiol 43 : 239 244.
227. Zegans ME Becker HI Budzik J O'Toole G 2002 The role of bacterial biofilms in ocular infections. DNA Cell Biol 21 : 415 420.