The Conduction Properties of Demyelinated and Remyelinated Axons

Multiple Sclerosis As A Neuronal Disease

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 85-100

  Smith, Kenneth J ^a   Waxman, Stephen G ^b  

^a Guy's Campus   (United Kingdom)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33646801183     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-012738761-1/50007-9     Document Type: Chapter

References (131)

1. Y. Akiyama, O. Honmou, T. Kato, T. Uede, K. Hashi and J.D. Kocsis (2001) Transplantation of clonal neural precursor cells derived from adult human brain establishes functional peripheral myelin in the sat spinal cord. Exp. Neurol. 167 27-39.
2. Y. Akiyama, C. Radtke and J.D. Kocsis (2002) Remyelination of the rat spinal cord by transplantation of identified bone marrow stromal cells. J. Neurosci 22 6623-6630.
3. F. Andermann, J.B.R. Cosgrove, D.L. Lloyd-Smith, P. Gloor and F.L. McNaughton (1961) Facial myokymia in multiple sclerosis. Brain 84 31-44.
4. E.J. Arroyo and S.S. Scherer (2000) On the molecular architecture of myelinated fibers. Histochemistry 113 1-18.
5. K. Asakura and M. Rodriguez (1998) A unique population of circulating autoantibodies promotes central nervous system remyelination. Multiple Sclerosis 4 217-221.
6. S.P. Avis and W.E. Pryse-Phillips (1995) Sudden death in multiple sclerosis associated with sun exposure: A report of two cases. Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 22 305-307.
7. M. Baker and H. Bostock (1992) Ectopic activity in demyelinated spinal root axons of the rat. J Physiol. (London) 451 539-552.
8. M.D. Baker (2000) Axonal flip-flops and oscillators. Trends Neurosci. 23 514-519.
9. D. Barnes, P.M. Munro, B.D. Youl, J.W. Prineas and W.I. McDonald (1991) The longstanding MS lesion. A quantitative MRI and electron microscopic study. Brain 114 1271-1280.
10. E.A. Baron-Van, V. Avellana-Adalid, F. Lachapelle and R. Liblau (1997) Schwann cell transplantation and myelin repair of the CNS. Multiple Sclerosis 3 157-161.
11. J.R. Berger and W.A. Sheremata (1985) Reply to letter by F. A. Davis. JAMA 253 203.
12. J.A. Black, M. Renganathan and S.G. Waxman (2002) Sodium channel Na(v) 1.6 is expressed along nonmyelinated axons and it contributes to conduction. Mol. Brain Res. 105 19-28.
13. J.A. Black and S.G. Waxman (1996) Sodium channel expression: A dynamic process in neurons and non-neuronal cells. Dev. Neurosci. 18 139-152.
14. W.F. Blakemore and R.J.M. Franklin (2000) Transplantation options for therapeutic central nervous system remyelination. Cell Transplant 9 289-294.
15. W.F. Blakemore and K.J. Smith (1983) Node-like axonal specializations along demyelinated central nerve fibres: Ultrastructural observations. Acta Neuropathol. 60 291-296.
16. H. Bostock (1984) Internodal conduction along undissected nerve fibers in experimental neuropathy. P.J. Dyck, P.K. Thomas, E.H. Lambert, R. Bunge (Eds) Peripheral Neuropathy Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders 900-910.
17. H. Bostock (1994) the pathophysiology of demyelination. R.M. Herndon, F.J. Seil (Eds) Multiple Sclerosis: Current Status of Research and Treatment New York: Demons Publications, Inc. 89-112.
18. H. Bostock and P. Grafe (1985) Activity-dependent excitability changes in normal and demyelinated rat spinal root axons. J. Physiol. 365 239-257.
19. H. Bostock and T.A. Sears (1978) The internodal axon membrane: electrical excitability and continuous conduction in segmental demyelination. J. Physiol. 280 273-301.
20. H. Bostock, T.A. Sears and R.M. Sherratt (1981) The effects of 4-aminopyridine and tetraethylammonium ions on normal and demyelinated mammalian nerve fibres. J. Physiol. 313 301-315.
21. H. Bostock, R.M. Sherratt and T.A. Sears (1978) Overcoming conduction failure in, demyelinated nerve fibres by prolonging action potentials. Nature 274 385-387.
22. C.M. Bowe, J.D. Kocsis, E.F. Targ and S.G. Waxman (1987) Physiological effects of 4-aminopyridine on demyelinated mammalian motor and sensory fibers. Am. J. Neurol. 22 264-268.
23. H. Brinkmeier, P. Aulkemeyer, K.H. Wollinsky and R. Rudel (2000) An endogenous pentapeptide acting as a sodium channel blocker in inflammatory autoimmune disorders of the central nervous system. Nature Med. 6 808-811.
24. K.J. Burchiel (1981) Ectopic impulse generation in demyelinated axons: Effects of PaCO2, pH, and disodium edetate. Am. J. Neurol. 9 378-383.
25. J.H. Caldwell, K.L. Schaller, R.S. Lasher, E. Peles and S.R. Levinson (2000) Sodium channel Na(v) 1.6 is localized at nodes of Ranvier, dendrites, and synapses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97 5616-5620.
26. C. Cappelen-Smith, S. Kuwabara, C.S.Y. Lin, I. Mogyoros and D. Burke (2000) Activity-dependent hyperpolarization and conduction block in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Ann. Neurol. 48 826-832.
27. S.Y. Chiu and J.M. Ritchie (1981) Evidence for the presence of potassium channels in the paranodal region of acutely demyelinated mammalian single nerve fibres. J. Physiol. 313 415-437.
28. C. Cranchetti, A. Zuddas, A.P. Randazzo, L. Perra and M.G. Marrosu (1999) Lamotrigine adjunctive therapy in painful phenomena in MS: Preliminary observations. Neurology 53 433.
29. M.J. Craner, A.C. Lo, J.A. Black and S.G. Waxman (2003) Abnormal sodium channel distribution in optic nerve axons in a model of inflammatory demyelination. Brain 126 1552-1561.
30. M.J. Craner, J. Newcombe, J.A. Black, C. Hartle, M.L. Cuzner and S.G. Waxman (2004) Molecular changes in neurons in MS: Altered axonal expression of Nav.2 and Nav1.6 sodium channels and Na/Ca exchanger. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 8168-8173.
31. T.R. Cummins, M. Renganathan, P.K. Stys, R.I. Herzog, K. Scarfo, R. Horn, S.D. Dib-Hajj and S.G. Waxman (2003) The pentapeptide QYNAD does not block voltage-gated sodium channels. Neurology 60 224-229.
32. F.A. Davis, F.O. Becker, J.A. Michael and E. Sorensen (1970) Effect of intraveous sodium bicarbonate, disodium edetate (Na2EDTA), and hyperventilation on visual and oculomotor signs in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 33 723-732.
33. F.A. Davis, D. Bergen, C. Schauf, I. McDonald and W. Deutsch (1976) Movement phosphenes in optic neuritis: a new clinical sign. Neurology 26 1100-1104.
34. F.A. Davis and C.L. Schauf (1981) Approaches to the development of pharmacological intervetions in multiple sclerosis. Adv. Neurol. 31 505-510.
35. F.A. Davis, C.L. Schauf, B.J. Reed and R.L. Kesler (1975) Experimental studies of the effects of extrinsic factors on conduction in normal and demyelinated nerve. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 39 442-448.
36. S. Dugandzija-Novakovic, A.G. Koszowski, S.R. Levinson and P. Shrager (1995) Clustering of Na+ channels and node of Ranvier formation in remyelinating axons. J. Neurosci. 15 492-503.
37. J. Edmund and T. Fog (1955) Visual and motor instability in multiple sclerosis. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 73 316-323.
38. J.D. England, F. Gamboni and S.R. Levinson (1991) Increased numbers of sodium channels form along demyelinated axons. Brain Res. 548 334-337.
39. P.A. Felts, T.A. Baker and K.J. Smith (1997) Conduction in segmentally demyelinated mammalian central axons. J. Neurosci. 17 7267-7277.
40. P.A. Felts, R. Kapoor and K.J. Smith (1995) A mechanism for ectopic firing in central demyelinated axons. Brain 118 1225-1231.
41. P.A. Felts and K.J. Smith (1992) Conduction properties of central nerve, fibers remyelinated by Schwann cells. Brain Res. 574 178-192.
42. R.E. Foster, C.C. Whalen and S.G. Waxman (1980) Reorganization of the axon membrane in demyelinated peripheral nerve fibers: morphological evidence. Science 210 661-663.
43. G. Garthwaite, D.A. Goodwin and J. Garthwaite (1999) Nitric oxide stimulates cGMP formation in rat optic nerve axons, providing aspecific marker of axon viability. Eur. J. Neurosci. 11 4367-4372.
44. N.R. Ghatak, A. Hirano, H. Lijtmaer and H.M. Zimmerman (1974) Asymptomatic demyelinated plaque in the spinal cord. Arch. Neurol. 30 484-486.
45. R.W. Gilliatt (1982) Electrophysiology of peripheral neuropathies: An overview. Muscle Nerve 5 S108-S116.
46. R.F. Gledhill and W.I. McDonald (1977) Morphological characteristics of, central demyelination and remyelination: a single-fiber study. Ann. Neurol. 1 552-560.
47. T.C. Guthrie (1951) Visual and motor changes in patients with multiple sclerosis. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 65 437-451.
48. A.M. Halliday, W.I. McDonald and J. Mushin (1973) Visual evoked response in diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Br. Med. J. 4 661-664.
49. A.K.M. Hammarstrom and P.W. Gage (1999) Nitric oxide increases persistent sodium current in rat hippocampal neurons. J. Physiol. 520 451-461.
50. J.W. Harbison, V.P. Calabrese and R.F. Edlich (1989) A fatal case of sun exposure in a multiple sclerosis patient. J. Emerg. Med. 7 465-467.
51. B.M. Harrison, W.O. McDonald and J. Ochoa (1972) Remyelination in the central diphtheria toxin lesion. J. Neurol. Sci. 17 293-302.
52. M. Hartman, K.G. Rottach, W.A. Wohlgemuth and K. Pfadenhauer (1999) Trigeminal neuralgia triggered by auditory stimuli in multiple sclerosis. Arch. Neurol. 56 731-733.
53. B. Hille (1992) 2nd ed Inoc Channels of Excitable Membranes Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates Inc.
54. O. Honmou, P.A. Felts, S.G. Waxman and J.D. Kocsis (1996) Restroration of normal conduction properties in demyelinated spinal cord axons in the adult rat by transplantation of exogenous Schwann cells. J. Neurosci. 16 3199-3208.
55. C.L. Hopper, C.G. Mathews and C.S. Cleeland (1972) Symptom instability and thermoregulation in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 22 142-148.
56. J.F. Howe, W.H. Calvin and J.D. Loeser (1976) Impulses reflected from dorsal root ganglia from focal nerve injuries. Brain Res. 116 139-144.
57. P. Huizar, M. Kuno and Y. Miyata (1975) Electrophysiological properties of spinal motoneurones of normal and dystrophic mice. J. Physiol. 248 231-246.
58. T. Imaizumi, K.L. Lankford and J.D. Kocsis (2000) Transplantation of olfactory enheathing cells or Schwann cells restores rapid and secure conduction across the transected, spinal cord. Brain Res. 854 70-78.
59. T. Imaizumi, K.L. Landkford, S.G. Waxman, C.A. Greer and J.D. Kocsis (1998) Transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells remyelinate and enhance axonal conduction in the demyelinated dorsal colums of the rat spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 18 6176-6185.
60. N.D. Jeffery and W.F. Blakemore (1997) Locomotor deficits induced by experimental spinal cord demyelination are abolished by spontaneous remyelination. Brain 120 27-37.
61. R. Kaji, L. Happel and A.J. Sumner (1990) Effect of digitalis on clinical symptoms and conduction variables in patients with multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 28 582-584.
62. R. Kaji and A.J. Sumner (1989) Ouabain reverses conduction disturbances in single demyelinated nerve fibers. Neurology 39 1364-1368.
63. R. Kanchandani and J.G. Howe (1982) Lhermitte's sign in multiple sclerosis: a clinical survey and review of the literature. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 45 308-312.
64. R. Kapoor, P. Brown, P.D. Thompson and D.H. Miller (1992) Propriospinal myoclonus in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 55 1086-1088.
65. R. Kapoor, Y.G. Li and K.J. Smith (1997) Slow sodium-dependent potential oscillation contribute to ectopic firing in mammalian demyelinated axons. Brain 120 647-652.
66. R. Kapoor, K.J. Smith, P.A. Felts and M. Davies (1993) Internodal potassium currents can generate ectopic impulses in mammalian myelinate axons. Brain Res. 611 165-169.
67. K. Kazarinova-Noyes and P. Shrager (2002) Molecular constituents of the node of Ranvier. Mol. Neurobiol. 26 167-182.
68. M.C. Kiernan, J.M. Guglielmi, R. Kaji, N.M. Murray and H. Bostock (2002) Evidence for axonal membrane hyperpolarization in multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block. Brain 125 664-675.
69. I. Kohama, K.L. Lankford, J. Preiningerova, F.A. White, T.L. Vollmer and J.D. Kocsis (2001) Tranplantation of cryopreserved adult human Schwann cells enhances axonal conduction in demyelinated spinal cord. J. Neurosci. 21 944-950.
70. A.J. Koles and M. Rasminsky (1972) A computer simulation of conduction in demyelinated nerve fibres. J. Physiol. 227 351-364.
71. R.A. Lewis, A.J. Sumner, M.J. Brown and A.K. Asbury (1982) Multifocal demyelinating neuropathy with persistent conduction block. Neurology 32 958-964.
72. J. Lhermitte, J. Bollack and M. Nicholas (1924) Les douleurs à type de décharge électrique conséccutives à la flexion céphalique dans la sclérose en plaques. Revue Neurologique 2 56-62.
73. J.L. Lu, K.A. Sheikh, H.S. Wu, J. Zhang, Z.F. Jiang, D.R. Cornblath, G.M. McKhann, A.K. Asbury, J.W. Griffin and T.W. Ho (2000) Physiologic-pathologic correlation in Guillain-Barré syndrome in children. Neurology 54 33-39.
74. A.S. Malhotra and H. Goren (1981) The hot bath test in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. JAMA 246 1113-1114.
75. B. Mathews (1998) Symptoms and sign of multiple sclerosis. A. Compston, G. Ebers, H. Lassmann, W.I. McDonald, B. Matthews, H. Wekerle (Eds) McAlphine's Multiple Sclerosis London: Churchill Livingstone 145-190.
76. I. McDonald (1998) Pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis. A. Compston, G. Ebers, H. Lassmann, I. McDonald, B. Mathews, H. Wekerle (Eds) McAlpine's Multiple Sclerosis London: Churchill Livingstone 359-378.
77. W.I. McDonald (1963) The effects of experimental demyelination on conduction in peripheral nerve: A histological and electrophysiological study. II. Electrophysiological observations. Brain 86 501-524.
78. McDonald, W. I. (1975) Mechanisms of functional loss and recovery in spinal cord damage. In "Outcome of Severe Damage to the Central Nervous System" pp. 23–33.
79. W.I. McDonald (1986) The pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis. W.I. McDonald, D.H. Silberberg (Eds) Multiple Sclerosis London: Butterworth 112-133.
80. W.I. McDonald and T.A. Sears (1970) The effects of experimental demyelination on conduction in the central nervous system. Brain 93 583-598.
81. S.G. Meuth, T. Budde, H. Duyar, P. Landgraf, T. Broicher, M. Elbs, R. Brock, M. Weller, R. Weissert and H. Wiendl (2003) Modulation of neuronal activity by the endogenous pentapeptide QYNAD. Eur. J. Neurosci. 18 2697-2706.
82. I. Mogyoros, H. Bostock and D. Burke (2000) Mechanisms of paresthesias arsing from healthy axons. Muscle Nerve 23 310-320.
83. I. Mogyoros, M.C. Kiernan, D. Burke and H. Bostock (1997) Exeitability changes in human sensory and motor axons during hyperventilation and ischaemia. Brain 120 317-325.
84. T. Moueau, A. Coles, M. Wing, J. Isaacs, G. Hale, H. Waldmann and A. Compston (1996) Transient increase in symptoms associated with cytokine release in patients with multiple sclerosis. Brain 119 225-237.
85. M. Nordin, B. Nystrom, U. Wallin and K.E. Hagbarth (1984) Ectopic sensory discharges and paresthesiae in patients with disorders of peripheral nerves, dorsal roots and dorsal columns. Pain 20 231-245.
86. A.S. Paintal (1966) The influence of diameter of medullated nerve fibres of cats on the rising and falling phases of the spike and its recovery. J. Physiol. 184 791-811.
87. J.G. Phadke and P.V. Best (1983) Atypical and clinically silent multiple sclerosis: a report of 12 cases discovered unexpectedly at necropsy. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 46 414-420.
88. J.W. Prineas, R.O. Barnard, E.E. Kwon, L.R. Sharer and E.S. Cho (1993) Multiple sclerosis: remyelination of nascent lesions. Ann. Neurol. 33 137-151.
89. J.W. Prineas and F. Connell (1979) Remyelination in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 5 22-31.
90. S. Quasthoff, C. Pojer, A. Mori, D. Hofer, P. Liebmann, B.C. Kieseier and W. Schreibmayer (2003) No blocking effects of the pentapeptide QYNAD on Na+ channel subtypes expressed in Xenopus oocytes or action potential conduction in isolated rat sural nerve. Neurosci. Lett. 352 93-96.
91. M. Rasminsky (1973) The effects of temperature on conduction in demyelinated single nerve fibers. Arch. Neurol. 28 287-292.
92. M. Rasminsky (1978) Ectopic generation of impulses and cross-talk in spinal nerve roots of "dystrophic" mice. Ann. Neurol. 3 351-357.
93. M. Rasminsky (1980) Ephatic transmissio between single nerve fibres in the spinal nerve roots of dystrophic mice. J. Physiol. 305 151-169.
94. E.J. Redford, R. Kapoor and K.J. Smith (1997) Nutric oxide donors reversibly block axonal conduction: demyelinated axons are especially susceptible. Brain 120 2149-2157.
95. J.M. Ritchie and R.B. Rogart (1977) Density of sodium channels in mammalian myelinated nerve fibers and nature of the axonal membrane under the myelin sheath. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 74 211-215.
96. M.A. Rizzo, J.D. Kocsis and S.G. Waxman (1996) Mechanisms of paresthesiae, dysesthesiae, and hyperesthesiae: Role of Na+ channel heaterogeneity. Eur. Neurol. 36 3-12.
97. J Rosenbluth, J.-H. Tao-Cheng and W.F. Blakemore (1985) Dependence of axolemmal differentiation on contact with glial cells in chronically demyelinated lesions of cat spinal cord. Brain Res. 358 287-302.
98. W.A.H. Rushton (1937) Initiation of the propagated disturbance. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Series B 124 210-243.
99. M. Sakurai and I. Kanazawa (1999) Positive symptoms in multiple sclerosis: Their treatment with sodium channel blockers. Iidocaine and mexiletine. J. Neurol. Sci. 162 162-168.
100. B.J. Scherokman, J.B. Shelhorst, E.A. Waybright, B. Jabbari, G.E. Bryan and C.G. Maitland (1985) Improved optic nerve conduction with ingestion of ice water. Ann. Neurol. 17 418-419.
101. T.A. Sears and H. Bostock (1981) Conduction failure in demyelination: is it inevitable. Adv. Neurol. 31 357-375.
102. R.M. Sherratt, H. Bostock and T.A. Sears (1980) Effects of 4-aminopyridine on normal and demyelinated mammalian nerve fibres. Nature 283 570-572.
103. P. Shrager (1993) Axonal coding of action potentials in demyelinated nerve fibers. Brain Res. 619 278-290.
104. P. Shrager, A.W. Custer, K. Kazarinova, M.N. Rasband and D. Mattson (1998) Nerve conduction block by nitric oxide that is mediated by the axonal environment. J. Neurophysiol. 79 529-536.
105. P. Shrager and C.T. Rubinstein (1990) Optical measurement of conduction in single demvelinated axons. J. Gen. Physiol. 95 867-890.
106. K.J. Smith (1994) Conduction properties of central demyelinated and remyelinated axons, and their relation to symptom production in demyelinating disorders. Eve 8 224-237.
107. K.J. Smith, W.F. Blakemore and W.I. McDonald (1979) Central remyelination restores secure conduction. Nature 280 395-396.
108. K.J. Smith, W.F. Blakemore and W.I. McDonald (1981) The restoration of conduction by central remyelination. Brain 104 383-404.
109. K.J. Smith, H. Bostock and S.M. Hall (1982) Saltatory conduction precedes remyelination in axons demyelinated with lysophosphatidyl choline. J. Neurol. Sci. 54 13-31.
110. K.J. Smith, P.A. Felts and G.R. John (2000) Effects of 4-aminopyridine on demyelinated axons, synapses and muscle tension. Brain 123 171-184.
111. K.J. Smith, P.A. Felts and R. Kapoor (1997) Axonal hyperexcitability: mechanisms and role in symptom production in demyelinating diseases. The Neuroscientist 3 237-246.
112. K.J. Smith and S.M. Hall (1980) Nerve conduction during peripheral demyelination and remyelination. J. Neurol. Sci. 48 201-219.
113. K.J. Smith and W.I. McDonald (1980) Spontaneous and mechanically evoked activity due to central demyelinating lesion. Nature 286 154-155.
114. K.J. Smith and W.I. McDonald (1982) Spontaneous and evoked electrical discharges from a central demyelinating lesion. J. Neurol. Sci. 55 39-47.
115. A.J. Sumner, K. Saida, T. Saida, D.H. Silberberg and A.K. Asbury (1982) Acute conduction block associated with experimental antiserum-mediated demyelination of peripheral nerve. Ann. Neurol. 11 469-477.
116. H.A. Swadlow, S.G. Waxman and T.G. Weyand (1981) Effect of variations in temperature on impulse conduction along nonmyelinated axons in the mammalian brain. Exp. Neurol. 71 383-389.
117. E.F. Targ and J.D. Kocsis (1985) 4-Aminopyridine leads to restoration of conduction in demyelinated rat sciatic nerve. Brain Res. 328 358-361.
118. I. Tasaki (1953) Nervous Transmission Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas
119. A.F. Titcombe and R.G. Willison (1961) Flicker fusion in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 24 260-265.
120. D.A. Utzschneider, D.R. Archer, J.D. Kocsis, S.G. Waxman and I.D. Duncan (1994) Transplantation of gial cell enhance action portential conduction of amyelinated spinal cord axons in the myelin-deficient rat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 91 53-57.
121. R. Vagg, I. Mogyoros, M.C. Kiernan and D. Burke (1998) Activity-dependent hyperpolarization of human motor axons produced by natural activity. J. Physiol. 507 919-925.
122. H.A. van Diemen, M.M. van Dongen, J.W. Dammers and C.H. Polman (1992) Increased visual impairment after exercise (Uhthoff's phenomenon) in multiple sclerosis: therapeutic possibilities. Eur. Neurol. 32 231-234.
123. A.E. Warrington, K. Asakura, A.J. Bieber, B. Ciric, K.V. Van, S.V. Kaveri, R.A. Kyle, L.R. Pease and M. Rodriguez (2000) Human monoclonal antibodies reactive to oligodendrocytes promote remyelination in a model of multiple sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97 6820-6825.
124. S.G. Waxman (1977) Comduction in myelinated, unmyelinated, and demyelinated fibers. Arch. Neurol. 34 585-589.
125. S.G. Waxman (1981) Clinicopathological correlations in multiple sclerosis and related diseases. Adv. Neurol. 31 169-182.
126. S.G. Waxman (1989) Demyelination in spinal cord injury. J. Neurol. Sci. 91 1-14.
127. S.G. Waxman, J.A. Black, J.D. Kocsis and J.M. Ritchie (1989) Low density of sodium channels supports action potential conduction in axons of neonatal rat optic nerve. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 86 1406-1410.
128. S.G. Waxman and M.H. Brill (1978) Conduction through demyelinated plaques in multiple sclerosis: computer simulations of facilitation by short internodes. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 41 408-416.
129. S.G. Waxman and N. Geschwind (1983) Major morbidity related to hyperthermia in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 13 348.
130. F. Weber, R. Rudel, P. Aulkemeyer and H. Brinkmeier (2002) The endogenous pentapeptide QYNAD induces acute conduction block in the isolated rat sciatic nerve. Neurosci. Lett. 317 33-36.
131. H.M. Wisniewski, D. Oppenheimer and W.I. McDonald (1976) Relation between myelination and function in MS and EAE. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 35 327.