Aetiology, diagnosis, and management of hypopituitarism in adult life

Postgraduate Medical Journal

Volumn 82, Issue 966, 2006, Pages 259-266

  Prabhakar, V K B ^a   Shalet, S M ^b  

^a STEPPING HILL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b CHRISTIE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; DESMOPRESSIN; DEXAMETHASONE; ESTRADIOL; ESTRADIOL VALERATE; ESTROGEN; GROWTH HORMONE; HYDROCORTISONE; PREDNISOLONE; PROGESTERONE; TESTOSTERONE; TESTOSTERONE ESTER; TESTOSTERONE UNDECANOATE; THYROXINE;

ARTHRALGIA; CORTICOTROPIN DEFICIENCY; FLUID RETENTION; GENE ISOLATION; GROWTH HORMONE DEFICIENCY; HEADACHE; HORMONE DEFICIENCY; HUMAN; HYPOPITUITARISM; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MYALGIA; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SUBSTITUTION THERAPY;

ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE; ADULT; FEMALE; GONADOTROPINS; HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY; HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE; HUMANS; HYPOPITUITARISM; MALE;

EID: 33645923389     PISSN: 00325473     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.2005.039768     Document Type: Review

References (84)

1. Regal M, Paramo C, Sierra SM, et al. Prevalence and incidence of hypopituitarism in an adult Caucasian population in northwestern Spain. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2001;55:735-40.
2. Rosen T, Bengtsson B-A. Premature mortality due to cardiovascular disease in hypopituitarism. Lancet 1990;336:285-8.
3. Bates AS, Van't Hoff W, Jones PJ, et al. The effect of hypopituitarism on life expectancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:1169-72.
4. Bulow B, Hagmart L, Mikoczy Z, et al. Increased cerebrovascular mortality in patients with nypopituitarism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1997;46:75-81.
5. Tomlinson JW, Holden N, Hills RK, et al. Association between premature mortality and hypopituitarism. Lancet 2001;357:425-31.
6. Vance ML. Hypopituitarism. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1651-62.
7. Arafah BM. Reversible hypopituitarism in patients with large nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986;62:1173-9.
8. Arafah BM, Prunty D, Ybarra J, et al. The dominant role of increased intrasellar pressure in the pathogenesis of hypopituitarism, hyperprolactinemia, and headaches in patients with pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:1789-93.
9. Comtois R, Beauregard H, Somma M, et al. The clinical and endocrine outcome to transsphenoidal microsurgery of non-secreting pituitary adenomas. Cancer 1991;68:860-6.
10. Marazuela M, Astigarraga B, Vicente A, et al. Recovery of visual and endocrine function following transsphenoidal surgery of large non-functioning pituitary adenomas. J Endocrinol Invest 1994;17:703-7.
11. Webb SM, Rigla M, Wägner A, et al. Recovery of hypopituitarism after neurosurgical treatment of pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:3696-700.
12. Harris PE, Afshar F, Coates P, et al. The effects of transsphenoidal surgery on endocrine function and visual fields in patients with functionless pituitary tumours. Q J Med 1989;71:417-27.
13. Littley MD, Shalet SM, Beardwell CG, et al. Hypopituitarim following external radiotherapy for pituitary tumors in adults. Q J Med 1989;70:145-60.
14. Littley MD, Shalet SM, Beardwell CG, et al. Radiation induced hypopituitarism is dose dependent. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1989;31:363-73.
15. Feigl GC, Bonelli CM, Berghold A, et al. Effects of gamma knife radiosurgery of pituitary adenomas on pituitary function. J Neurosurg 2002;97:415-21.
16. Cogan JC, Phillips JA III, Sakati N, et al. Heterogeneous growth hormone (GH) gene mutations in familial GH deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;76:1224-8.
17. Wajnrajch MP, Gertner JM, Harbison MC, et al. Nonsense mutation in the human growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor causes growth failure analogous to the little (lit) mouse. Nat Genet 1996;12:88-90.
18. Goudie RB, Pinkerton PH. Anterior hypophysitis and Hashimoto's disease in a young woman. J Pathol Bacterial (Lond) 1962;83:584-5.
19. Thodou L, Asa SL, Kontogeorgos G, et al. Lymphocytic hypophysitis: clinicopathological findings. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:2302-11.
20. Hashimoto K, Takao T, Makino S. Lymphocytic adenohypophysitis and lymphocytic infundibuloneurohypophysitis. Endocr J 1997;44:1-10.
21. Beressi N, Beressi JP, Cohen R, et al. Lymphocytic hypophysitis-a review of 145 cases. Ann Intern Med 1999;150:327-41.
22. Bellastella A, Bizzarro A, Coronella C, et al. Lymphocytic hypophysitis: a rare or underestimated disease? Eur J Endocrinol 2003;149:363-76.
23. Benvenga S, Campenni A, Ruggeri RM, et al. Clinical review 113: hypopituitarism secondary to head trauma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:1353-61.
24. Aimaretti G, Ambrosio MR, Di Somma C, et al. Traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid haemorrhage are conditions at high risk for hypopituitarism: screening study at 3 months after the brain injury. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004;61:320-6.
25. Kelly DF, Gonzalo IT, Cohan P, et al. Hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: a preliminary report. J Neurosurg 2000;93:743-52.
26. Arafah BM, Harrington JF, Madhoun ZT, et al. Improvement of pituitary function after surgical decompression for pituitary tumour apoplexy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990;71:323-8.
27. Randeva HS, Schoebel J, Byrne J, et al. Classical pituitary apoplexy: clinical features, management and outcome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;51:181-8.
28. Shalet SM, Toogood A, Rahim A, et al. The diagnosis of growth hormone deficiency in children and adults. Endocr Rev 1998;19:203-23.
29. Growth Hormone Research Society (GRS). Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of adults with GH deficiency. Statement of the GRS workshop on adult GHD. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:379-81.
30. Murray RD, Peacey SR, Rahim A, et al. The diagnosis of growth hormone deficiency (GHD) in successfully treated acromegalic patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2001;54:37-44.
31. Nicolson A, Toogood AA, Rahim A, et al. The prevalence of severe growth hormone deficiency in adults who received growth hormone replacement in childhood. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996;44:311-16.
32. Hoffman DM, O'Sullivan AJ, Baxter RC, et al. Diagnosis of growth hormone deficiency in adults, Lancet 1994;343:1064-8.
33. Jones SL, Trainer PJ, Perry L, et al. An audit of the insulin tolerance test in adult subjects in an acute investigation unit over one year. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1994;41:123-8.
34. Hoeck HC, Vestergoard P, Jakobson PE, et al. Test of growth hormone secretion in adults: poor reproducibility of the insulin tolerance test. Eur J Endocrinol 1995;133:305-12.
35. Aimaretti G, Cornell G, Razzore P, et al. Comparison between insulin-induced hypoglycaemia and growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone + arginine as provocative tests for the diagnosis of GH deficiency in adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:1615-18.
36. Korbonits M, Kaltsas G, Perry LA, et al. Hexarelin as a test of pituitary reserve in patients with pituitary disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;51:369-75.
37. Gasperi M, Aimaretti G, Scarcello G, et al. Low dose hexarelin and growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone as a diagnostic tool for the diagnosis of GH deficiency in adults: comparison with insulin-induced hypoglycemia test. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:2633-7.
38. Rahim A, Toogood AA, Shalet SM. The assessment of growth hormone in normal young adult using a variety of provocative agents. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996;45:557-62.
39. Gómez JM, Espadero RM, Escobar-Jiménez F, et al. Growth hormone release after glucagon as a reliable test of growth hormone assessment in adults. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2002;56:329-34.
40. Toogood AA, Jones J, O'Neill PA, et al. The diagnosis of severe growth hormone deficiency in elderly patients with hypothalamic-pituitary disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998;48:569-76.
41. Pavord SR, Girach A, Price DE, et al. A retrospective audit of the combined pituitary function test, using the insulin stress test, TRH and GnRH in a district laboratory. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1992;36:135-9.
42. Hurel SJ, Thompson CJ, Watson MJ, et al. The short Synacthen and insulin stress tests in the assessment of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996;44:141-6.
43. Plumpton FS, Besser GM. The adrenocortical response to surgery and insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in corticosteroid treated and normal subjects. Br J Surg 1969;56:216-19.
44. Stewart P, Corrie J, Seckl J, et al. A rational approach for assessing the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Lancet 1988;i:1208-10.
45. Clayton RN. Short synacthen test versus insulin stress test for assessment of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis: controversy revisited. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996;44:147-9.
46. Soule SG, Fahie-Wilson M, Tomlinson S. Failure of the short ACTH test to unequivocally diagnose long-standing symptomatic secondary hypoadrenalism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996;44:137-40.
47. Oelkers W. Adrenal insufficiency. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1206-12.
48. Littley MD, Gibson S, White A, et al. Comparison of the ACTH and cortisol responses to provocative testing with glucagon and insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in normal subjects. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1989;31:527-33.
49. Baylis PH, Cheetham T. Diabetes insipidus. Arch Dis Child 1998;79:84-9.
50. De Herder WW, Lamberts SW. Imaging of pituitary tumours. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;9:367-89.
51. Bates AS, Bullivant B, Sheppard MC, et al. Life expectancy following surgery for pituitary tumours. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;50:315-19.
52. Nilsson B, Gustavasson-Kadaka E, Bengtsson BA, et al. Pituitary adenomas in Sweden between 1958 and 1991: incidence, survival, and mortality. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:1420-5.
53. Monson JP, Besser GM. Premature mortality and hypopituitarism. Lancet 2001;357:1972-3.
54. Kohno H, Kuromaru R, Ueyama N, et al. Premature mortality and hypopituitarism. Lancet 2001;357:1973-4.
55. Erfurth EM, Bengtsson BA, Christiansen JS, et al. Premature mortality and hypopituitarism. Lancet 2001;357:1972.
56. Mukherjee A, Murray RD, Columb B, et al. Acquired prolactin deficiency indicates severe hypopituitarism in patients with disease of the hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) axis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003;59:743-8.
57. Colao A, Annunziato L, Lombardi G. Treatment of prolactinomas. Ann Med 1998;30:452-9.
58. Lissett CA, Peacey SR, Laing I, et al. The outcome of surgery for acromegaly: the need for a specialist pituitary surgeon for all types of growth hormone (GH) secreting adenoma. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998;49:653-7.
59. Orth DN. Cushing's syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995;332:791-803.
60. Gittoes NJ, Bates AS, Tse W, et al. Radiotherapy for non-function pituitary tumours. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998;48:331-7.
61. de Boer H, Blok GJ, Van der Veen EA. Clinical aspects of growth hormone deficiency in adults. Endocr Rev 1995;16:63-86.
62. Carroll PV, Christ ER, Bengtsson BA, et al. Growth hormone deficiency in adulthood and the effects of growth hormone replacement: a review. Growth Hormone Research Society Scientific Committee. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:382-95.
63. National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Human growth hormone (somatotropin) in adults with growth hormone deficiency. Technology Appraisal 2003;64:4-7.
64. Beshyah SA, Johnston DG. Cardiovascular disease and risk factors in adults with hypopituitarism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;50:1-15.
65. Vance ML, Mauras N. Growth hormone therapy in adults and children. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1206-16.
66. Shalet SM, Trainer PJ. Pituitary hormone replacement. Medicine 2001;29:5-8.
67. Statement from me Growth Hormone Research Society. Critical evaluation of the safety of recombinant human growth hormone administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1868-70.
68. Peacey SR, Guo CY, Robinson AM, et al. Glucocorticoid replacement therapy: are patients over treated and does it matter? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1997;46:255-61.
69. Arlt W, Allolio B. Adrenal insufficiency. Lancet 2003;361:1881-93.
70. Howlett TA. An assessment of optimal hydrocortisone replacement therapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1997;46:263-8.
71. Esteban NV, Loughlin T, Yergey AL, et al. Daily cortisol production rate in man determined by stable isotope dilution/mass spectrometry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991;72:39-45.
72. Besser GM, Jeffcoate WJ. Adrenal disease. BMJ 1976;i:448-51.
73. Peacey SR, Pope RM, Naik KS, et al. Corticosteroid therapy and intercurrent illness: the need for continuing patient education. Postgrad Med J 1993;69:282-4.
74. Lamberts SW, de Herder WW, van der Lely AJ. Pituitary insufficiency. Lancet 1998;352:127-34.
75. Franklyn JA. Diagnosis and treatment of thyrotropin deficiency. In: Lamberts S, ed. The diagnosis and treatment of pituitary insufficiency. Bristol: BioScientifica, 1997:99-111.
76. Matsumoto AM. Hormonal therapy of male hypogonadism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1994;23:857-75.
77. Behre HM, Kleisch S, Leifke E, et al. Long-term effect of testosterone therapy in bone mineral density in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:2386-90.
78. Torgerson DJ, Bell-Seyer SE. Hormone replacement therapy and prevention of nonvertebral fractures: a meta-analysis of randomised trials. JAMA 2001;285:2891-7.
79. Armitage M, Nooney J, Evans S. Recent concerns surrounding HRT. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003;59:145-55.
80. Braunstein GD. Androgen insufficiency in women: summary of critical issues. Review. Fertil Steril 2002;77(suppl 4):S94-9.
81. Buchter D, Behre HM, Kliesch S, et al. Pulsatile GnRH or human chorionic gonadotropin/human menopausal gonadotrophin as effective treatment for men with hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism: a review of 42 cases. Fur J Endocrinol 1998;139:298-303.
82. Shoham Z, Balen A, Patel A, et al. Results of ovulation induction using human menopausal gonadotropin or purified follicle-stimulating hormone in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism patients. Fertil Steril 1991;56:1048-53.
83. Morris DV, Abdulwahid NA, Armor A, et al. The response of patients with organic hypothalamic-pituitary disease to pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone therapy. Fertil Steril 1987;47:54-9.
84. Baylis PH. Diabetes insipidus. Medicine 2001;19:13-15.