Beyond encounters: Religion, ethnicity, and violence in the early modern atlantic world, 1492-1700

Journal of World History

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-25

  Sandberg, Brian ^a  

^a Medici Archive Project   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNICITY; RELIGION; VIOLENCE;

EID: 33645503461     PISSN: 10456007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jwh.2006.0033     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. James Axtell, "Columbian Encounters: 1992-1995," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 52 (October 1995): 650, 695-696;
2. see also James Axtell, "Columbian Encounters: Beyond 1992," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 49 (April 1992): 335-360.
3. Axtell, "Columbian Encounters: 1992-1995," pp. 650-651, 690-692, argues that "During the Quincentenary, teachers, scholars, and activists generally lined up on two sides to debate the nature and 500-year legacy of the Columbian Encounter. One camp blamed Columbus and his European successors for all the deaths and misery of America's natives (and African slaves) to the present.... The other camp sought to complicate the moral and historical issues." Axtell clearly depicts scholarship on European atrocities as relying on "broad generalities" and "emotionally charged historical vignettes." In contrast, he associates historians who "complicate" issues and "contextualize" events with those who defend Columbus: "A number of articles defended Columbus and 'the West' against the historical attacks and 'misperceptions' of the counter-camp, some in mass media publications."
4. According to Axtell, "the most cogent response" was Robert Royal, 1492 and All That: Political Manipulations of History (Washington, D.C.: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1992);
5. and Robert Royal, Columbus on Trial: 1492 v. 1992 (Herndon, Va.: Young America's Foundation, 1992).
6. Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence, updated ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001);
7. Dwight N. Hopkins, Lois Ann Lorentzen, Eduardo Mendieta, and David Bastone, eds., Religions/Globalizations: Theories and Cases (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001);
8. R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict and Rowman & Littlefield, 2000);
9. Veena Das, Arthur Kleinman, Mamphela Ramphele, and Pamela Reynolds, eds., Violence and Subjectivity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000);
10. Barbara F. Walter and Jack Snyder, eds., Civil Wars, Insecurity, and Intervention (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999);
11. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Religion, Ethnicity, and Self-Identity: Nations in Turmoil (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1997);
12. Marc Gopin, "Religion, Violence, and Conflict Resolution," Peace & Change 22 (January 1997): 1-31;
13. Roy Licklider, ed., Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York: New York University Press, 1993).
14. Much of the new anthropological, sociological, political science, and historical literature on religious and ethnic violence draws on the theoretical work of René Girard and Martha Nussbaum; see Martha C. Nussbaum, The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986);
15. René Girard, The Scapegoat, trans. Yvonne Freccero (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986);
16. René Girard, Violence and the Sacred, trans. Patrick Gregory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977).
17. For a work that employs Girard's critical theory in interpreting ritualized violence, execution, and family during the French Revolution, see Lynn Hunt, The Family Romance of the French Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 10-14, 53-64;
18. Appleby, Ambivalence of the Sacred, pp. 78-80, critiques Girard's theory.
19. The organization of an upcoming conference on "Warfare and Society in Colonial North America and the Caribbean" by the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, in conjunction with the University of Tennessee Center for the Study of War and Society, suggests that a broad range of scholars are beginning to rethink the role of violence in the Columbian Exchange.
20. I am using the concept of an Atlantic world, despite the fundamental problem of geographic limits and periodization with all "waterborne" history. See Jerry H. Bentley, "Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History," American Historical Review 101 (June 1996): 749-770;
21. Patrick Manning, "The Problem of Interactions in World History," American Historical Review 101 (June 1996): 771-782;
22. Gale Stokes, "The Fates of Human Societies: A Review of Recent Macrohistories," American Historical Review 106 (April 2001): 508-525.
23. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 15-47.
24. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 13-42.
25. Thomas D. Hall, Social Change in the Southwest, 1350-1880 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), pp. 70-73.
26. A global theory of this dynamic is provided by Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996);
27. Parker's arguments are slightly refined in "The Artillery Fortress as an Engine of European Overseas Expansion, 1480-1750," in City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective, ed. James D. Tracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 386-416.
28. R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, "The Violent Edge of Empire," in War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, ed. R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 1992), pp. 1-30.
29. Laura Lunger Knoppers and Joan B. Landes, Monstrous Bodies/Political Monstrosities in Early Modern Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004).
30. I will use the term "Native American" to refer to all indigenous Americans throughout this text, recognizing that some scholars prefer the terms "American Indian," "Indian," or "Amerindian". For a discussion of the problems of Native American terminology and historiography, see R. David Edmunds, "Native Americans, New Voices: American Indian History, 1895-1995," American Historical Review 100 (June 1995): 717-740.
31. One of the best concise analyses of the problem of Eurocentrism in history and text is Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 1-54.
32. The tensions within subaltern approaches to Atlantic world history are discussed in Florencia E. Mallon, "The Promise and Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American History," American Historical Review 99 (December 1994): 1491-1515.
33. Veena Das and Arthur Kleinman, "Introduction," in Violence and Subjectivity (see n. 3), pp. 1-18.
34. Das challenges Foucault's theory of violence and power as she develops her own theory of subjectivity in Veena Das, "The Act of Witnessing: Violence, Poisonous Knowledge, and Subjectivity," in Violence and Subjectivity (see n. 3), pp. 205-225.
35. A recent attempt to survey the problem of violence in early modern Europe also questions Foucault directly; see Julius R. Ruff, Violence in Early Modern Europe, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 6-7, 73-116.
36. Christopher Columbus, The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus, trans. J. M. Cohen (London: Penguin Classics, 1992).
37. Ross Hassig, "War, Politics and the Conquest of Mexico," in War in the Early Modern World, 1450-1815, ed. Jeremy Black (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1999), pp. 207-235;
38. Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (London: Longman, 1994);
39. Ross Hassig, "Aztec and Spanish Conquest in Mesoamerica," in War in the Tribal Zone (see n. 10), pp. 83-102;
40. John F. Guilmartin, "The Military Revolution: Origins and First Tests Abroad," in The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe, ed. Clifford J. Rogers (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995), pp. 299-333.
41. Neil L. Whitehead, "Tribes Make States and States Make Tribes: Warfare and the Creation of Colonial Tribes and States in Northeastern South America," in War in the Tribal Zone (see n. 10), pp. 127-150.
42. Cynthia Radding, Wandering Peoples: Colonialism, Ethnic Spaces, and Ecological Frontiers in Northwestern Mexico, 1700-1850 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997), suggests that Native Americans creatively adapted Catholic religious practices, but her book focuses more on Jesuit missionaries' administration than on the production of syncretic religion in mission communities and the study could consider violence more directly.
43. David Coleman, Creating Christian Granada: Society and Religious Culture in an Old-World Frontier City, 1492-1600 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003).
44. Here, I am referring to H. E. Martel's description of Hans Staden as "a practiced chameleon."
45. Interestingly, much of the recent literature on identities seems to emphasize positive roles in identity construction. For an example, see Zygmunt Bauman, "From Pilgrim to Tourist - Or a Short History of Identity," in Questions of Cultural Identity, ed. Stuart Hall and Paul du Guy (London: Sage Publications, 1996), pp. 18-36.
46. Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Harper & Row, 1984).
47. Alfred A. Cave, "Who Killed John Stone? A Note on the Origins of the Pequot War," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 49 (July 1992): 509-521;
48. see also Alfred A. Cave, The Pequot War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996).
49. For a study of the persistence of the notions of "noble savage" and of the possibility of Native American "assimilation" into the early nineteenth century, see Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (1973; reprint, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1974).
50. For a consideration of the later eighteenth-century development of these notions, see Karen Halttunen, "Humanitarianism and the Pornography of Pain in Anglo-American Culture," American Historical Review 100 (April 1995): 303-334.
51. The concept of "primitive war" stems principally from two key theoretical works originally published in the 1940s: Harry Holbert Turney-High, Primitive War: Its Practice and Concepts, 2nd ed. (Columbia: South Carolina University Press, 1991)
52. and Quincy Wright, A Study of War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
53. Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 3-24;
54. see also Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origin of American Identity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), pp. 117-118.
55. Patrick M. Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the New England Indians (Lanham, Md.: Madison Books, 1991);
56. Wayne E. Lee, "Fortify, Fight, or Flee: Tuscarora and Cherokee Defensive Warfare and Military Culture Adaptation," Journal of Military History 68 (July 2004): 713-770.
57. George A. De Vos, "Ethnic Pluralism: Conflict and Accommodation," in Ethnic Identity: Creation, Conflict, and Accommodation, ed. Lola Romanucci-Ross and George A. De Vos (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 1995), pp. 15-47.
58. Thomas S. Abler, "Beavers and Muskets: Iroquois Military Fortunes in the Face of European Colonization," in War in the Tribal Zone (see n. 10), pp. 151-174;
59. Richard R. Johnson, "The Search for a Usable Indian: An Aspect of the Defense of Colonial New England," Journal of American History 64 (December 1977): 623-651.
60. For a study of the transformation of Iroquois warfare, see Daniel K. Richter, "War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 40 (October 1983): 537-544;
61. on Spanish expansion into North American and the problem of Native American endemic warfare, see Hall, Social Change in the Southwest, pp. 70-86.
62. Malone, Skulking Way of War, pp. 89-90, 96-98.
63. A recent reassessment, Massimo Livi-Bacci, "Return to Hispaniola: Reassessing a Demographic Catastrophe," Hispanic American Historical Review 83 (February 2003): 3-51, blames Native American population collapse in Hispaniola partly on the violence of the encomienda system.
64. For a good case study of the complex transition from Native American to African slave labor, see Stuart B. Schwartz, "Indian Labor and New World Plantations: European Demands and Indian Responses in Northeastern Brazil," American Historical Review 83 (February 1978): 43-79.
65. Philip D. Curtin, The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex: Essays in Atlantic History, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 73-85, 100-102;
66. Sidney W. Mintz, "Pleasure, Profit, and Satiation," in Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration, ed. Herman J. Viola and Carolyn Margolis (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), pp. 112-129;
67. David Barry Gaspar, "Antigua Slaves and Their Struggle to Survive," in ibid., pp. 130-138.
68. David Eltis, "Europeans and the Rise and Fall of Slavery in the Americas: An Interpretation," American Historical Review 98 (December 1993): 1399-1423;
69. Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800 (London: Verso, 1996), makes a similar point about the development of racism in early modern slavery.
70. This view has been questioned in a recent study of slavery in the Mediterranean world: Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 190-193.
71. Donald Harman Akenson, If the Irish Ran the World: Montserrat, 1630-1730 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997);
72. also, Jane Ohlmeyer, "Seventeenth-Century Ireland and the New British and Atlantic Histories," American Historical Review 104 (April 1999): 457-462.
73. Appleby, Ambivalence of the Sacred, pp. 8-15, 81-120.
74. Pauline Moffitt Watts, "Prophesy and Discovery: On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Columbus's 'Enterprise of the Indies,'" American Historical Review 90 (February 1985): 73-102.
75. Axtell, "Columbian Encounters: 1992-1995," pp. 651-655.
76. The term "religions of the oppressed" is Vittorio Lanternari's; Bruce Lincoln has proposed the term "religions of resistance" instead in Holy Terrors: Thinking About Religion after September 11 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), pp. 77-79;
77. one of the best early modern studies of this type is Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (New York: Viking, 1972).
78. It would be interesting to compare religious/political resistance of Native Americans with religious aspects of African slave resistance; however, the literature seems more oriented toward eighteenth- and nineteenth-century examples, as in Walter Rucker, "Conjure, Magic, and Power: The Influence of Afro-Atlantic Religious Practices on Slave Resistance and Rebellion," Journal of Black Studies 32 (September 2001): 84-103.
79. Andrew Keitt, "Religious Enthusiasm, the Spanish Inquisition, and the Disenchantment of the World," Journal of the History of Ideas 65 (April 2004): 231-250.
80. On this paradox, see Jorge Canizares Esguerra, "New World, New Stars: Patriotic Astrology and the Invention of Indian and Creole Bodies in Colonial Spanish America, 1600-1650," American Historical Review 104 (February 1999): 33-68.
81. Johnson, "Search for a Usable Indian," pp. 627, 645-651.
82. Armstrong Starkey, "European-Native American Warfare in North America, 1513-1815," in War in the Early Modern World (see n. 17), p. 249.
83. Michael Wolfe provides an excellent overview of sixteenth-century Catholic notions of conversion in The Conversion of Henri IV: Politics, Power, and Religious Belief in Early Modern France (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 6-21.
84. For a discussion of Protestant understandings of conversion, see Barbara B. Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 108-118.
85. Luc Giard and Louis de Vaucelles, eds., Les Jésuites à l'âge baroque (1540-1640) (Grenoble: Editions Jérôme Millon, 1996);
86. e siècle (Chambéry: Institut d'Études Savoisiennes, 2001).
87. Megan C. Armstrong, The Politics of Piety: Franciscan Preachers During the Wars of Religion, 1560-1600 (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2004), pp. 133, 170.
88. While Armstrong's study is solidly focused on Franciscans operating within France during the religious wars, one hopes that she might develop this global insight in her future work. J. H. Elliott, "The Mental World of Hernán Cortés," in Spain and Its World, 1500-1700: Selected Essays (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 38-40, shows that Franciscans in New Spain inspired Cortés's belief that "there would arise in Mexico a 'new church, where God will be served and honoured more than in any other region of the earth.'... The Francisan vision was a world-wide vision."
89. Andrew Cunningham and Ole Peter Grell, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 1-91;
90. R. W. Scribner, For the Sake of Simple Folk: Popular Propaganda for the German Reformation, rev. ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), pp. 148-188;
91. Hill, World Turned Upside Down.
92. Esguerra, "New World, New Stars," pp. 33-68.
93. Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God, pp. 145-63.
94. Cunningham and Grell, Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, pp. 79-82.
95. 27 14695.
96. Penny Roberts, "The Most Crucial Battle of the Wars of Religion? The Conflict over Sites of Reformed Worship in Sixteenth-Century France," Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 89 (1998): 247-267;
97. see also Brian Sandberg, Heroic Souls: French Nobles and Religious Conflict after the Edict of Nantes, 1598-1635 (forthcoming), where I also deal with this issue.
98. The term "mimetic violence" is René Girard's, but some of the best analyses of such violence can be found in studies of the French Wars of Religion. See Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross, pp. 76-106;
99. Natalie Zemon Davis, "The Rites of Violence," in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1975), pp. 152-187;
100. Girard, Violence and the Sacred, pp. 1-38.
101. I would like to thank Linda M. Clemmons for sharing her insights on captivity narratives with me.
102. Elaine Scarry's theorization of torture and warfare as bodily injury is especially pertinent here; Elaine Scarry, "Injury and the Structure of War," Representations 10 (Spring 1985):1-51.
103. Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das, and Margaret Lock, "Introduction," in Social Suffering, ed. Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das, and Margaret Lock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. ix-xxvii.
104. Descriptions of Tupinamba cannibalism were related in sixteenth-century travel narratives written by Europeans and diffused through seventeenth- and eighteenth-century texts on marvels and monstrosities, such as Abbé Guyon, Histoire des Amazones anciennes et modernes, enrichie de médailles (Paris: Jean Villette, 1740).
105. The influential anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss read many of these early modern accounts before conducting fieldwork with Native Americans in twentieth-century Brazil. He carried a copy of Jean de Léry's account with him and thought of early modern travel narratives "as [he] set foot on Brazilian soil for the first time." Interestingly, Lévi-Strauss mentions cannibalism, but avoids directly discussing Tupinamba cannibalism. See Claude Lévi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques, trans. John Weightman and Doreen Weightman (New York: Atheneum, 1975), pp. 81-88, 326, 335, 351-353, 383-393.
106. Frank Lestringant, Mapping the Renaissance World: The Geographical Imagination in the Age of Discovery, trans. David Fausett (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
107. Stephen Greenblatt, foreword to Lestringant, Mapping the Renaissance World, pp. vii-xv.
108. Michel de Certeau, The Writing of History, trans. Tom Conley (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), pp. 209-243;
109. Jean de Léry's account of Tupinamba cannibalism is doubly fascinating because he also describes European cannibalism at the siege of Sancerre during the French Wars of Religion; Robert M. Kingdon, Myths About the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacres, 1572-1576 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), pp. 58-62.
110. Cunningham and Grell, Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, pp. 200-246.
111. Girard, Violence and the Sacred, pp. 145-149, 274-308: "All religious rituals spring from the surrogate victim, and all the great institutions of mankind, both secular and religious, spring from ritual."
112. Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 16-18.
113. Richter, "War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience," pp. 537-544;
114. Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York: Vintage Books, 1972), pp. 76-107.
115. James Axtell and William C. Sturtevant, "The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 37 (July 1980): 451-472;
116. Starkey, "European-Native American Warfare in North America, 1513-1815," pp. 248-249.
117. Lisa Silverman, Tortured Subjects: Pain, Truth, and the Body in Early Modern France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), pp. 8-9.
118. Robin Law, "Warfare on the West African Slave Coast, 1650-1850," in War in the Tribal Zone (see n. 10), pp. 103-26.
119. Thornton, Africa and Africans, pp. 98-125.
120. David Eltis, Stephen Behrendt, David Richardson, and Herbert S. Klein, eds., The Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1562-1867: A Database CD-Rom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998);
121. Herbert S. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 130-160.
122. Bartolomé de Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, trans. Nigel Griffin (London: Penguin Classics, 1992).
123. For a historiographical discussion of the Black Legend and the "decline of Spain," see Richard L. Kagan, "Prescott's Paradigm: American Historical Scholarship and the Decline of Spain," in Imagined Histories: American Historians Interpret the Past, ed. Anthony Molho and Gordon S. Wood (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 324-348.
124. A comparative approach to atrocity is provided by Mark Grimsley and Clifford J. Rogers, eds., Civilians in the Path of War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002).
125. There is not space here to develop the complexities of gender conceptions and relations in determining combatant/noncombatant status; however, I discuss this issue in a case study, Brian Sandberg, "'Generous Amazons Came to the Breach': Besieged Women, Agency and Subjectivity During the French Wars of Religion," Gender & History 16 (November 2004): 654-688.
126. Perrault's analysis effectively explains the explosion of violence in Virginia, supporting interpretations that see the Virginia Massacre as a rupture in English policies toward, and relations with, Native Americans; see Alden T. Vaughan, "'Expulsion of the Savages': English Policy and the Virginia Massacre of 1622," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 35 (January 1978): 57-84.
127. The best introduction to the massive literature on the theories and the practices of "laws of war," including the concepts of jus ad bellum and jus in bello, is provided by Michael Howard, George J. Andreopoulos, and Mark R. Shulman, eds., The Laws of War: Constraints on Warfare in the Western World (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994);
128. see also James Turner Johnson, "Maintaining the Protection of Non-Combatants," Journal of Peace Research 37 (July 2000): 421-448;
129. and Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars (New York: Basic Books, 1977).
130. Don Higginbotham, "The Military Institutions of Colonial America: The Rhetoric and the Reality," in Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445-1871, ed. John A. Lynn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), pp. 131-153.
131. Geoffrey Parker, "Early Modern Europe," in Laws of War (see n. 75), pp. 40-58;
132. Mark Greengrass, "Hidden Transcripts: Secret Histories and Personal Testimonies of Religious Violence in the French Wars of Religion," in The Massacre in History, ed. Mark Levene and Penny Roberts (New York: Berghahn Books, 1999), pp. 69-88;
133. Brian Sandberg, "'Only the Sack and the Noose for its Citizens': Atrocities against Civilians in the Wars of Religion in Early Seventeenth-Century France," (forthcoming).
134. Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God, pp. 145-163, 187-215.
135. Luc Racaut, Hatred in Print: Catholic Propaganda and Protestant Identity during the French Wars of Religion (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), pp. 56-58, 77-79, 91-92.
136. John Smith quoted in Vaughan, "'Expulsion of the Savages,'" pp. 62-63.
137. John S. Nolan, "The Militarization of the Elizabethan State," Journal of Military History 58 (July 1994): 391-420;
138. Nicholas P. Canny, "The Ideology of English Colonization: From Ireland to America," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 30 (October 1973): 596-597.
139. Robin Clifton, "'An Indiscriminate Blackness'? Massacre, Counter-Massacre, and Ethnic Cleansing in Ireland, 1640-1660," in Massacre in History (see n. 77), pp. 107-126.
140. Barbara Donagan, "Atrocity, War Crime, and Treason in the English Civil War," American Historical Review 99 (October 1994): 1137-1166.
141. Nicholas P. Canny, Kingdom and Colony: Ireland in the Atlantic World, 1560-1800 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988);
142. Harold E. Selesky, "Colonial America," in Laws of War (see n. 75), pp. 60-62.
143. This usage of "gray zones" is adapted from Primo Levi, The Drowned and the Saved (New York: Vintage, 1989).
144. Michael Adas, "From Settler Colony to Global Hegemon: Integrating the Exceptionalist Narrative of the American Experience into World History," American Historical Review 106 (December 2001): 1692-1720, argues passionately that American historiography needs to overcome its central paradox of seeing America as an exceptional "city upon the hill" while also stressing America as a model for the rest of the world.
145. For a historiographical study of American exceptionalism, see Daniel T. Rodgers, "Exceptionalism," in Imagined Histories (see n. 72), pp. 21-40.
146. Eric Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
147. Talal Asad, "Muslims and European Identity: Can Europe Represent Islam?" in The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union, ed. Anthony Pagden (Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 209-227.
148. Consider Crosby's insistence on deadly disease, "biological imperialism," and "expansion," in Alfred W. Crosby Jr., Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986)
149. and Alfred W. Crosby Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1972).