What a cardiologist needs to know about patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection

Circulation

Volumn 112, Issue 25, 2005, Pages 3947-3957

  Hsue, Priscilla Y ^b   Waters, David D ^a  

^a SAN FRANCISCO GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

AIDS; Atherosclerosis; Cardiovascular diseases; Immune system

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR; ABACAVIR PLUS LAMIVUDINE PLUS ZIDOVUDINE; AMPRENAVIR; AMPRENAVIR PHOSPHATE; ATAZANAVIR; BEPRIDIL; DELAVIRDINE; DIDANOSINE; EFAVIRENZ; EMTRICITABINE; FLECAINIDE; INDINAVIR; LAMIVUDINE; LAMIVUDINE PLUS ZIDOVUDINE; LOPINAVIR PLUS RITONAVIR; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MEVINOLIN; NELFINAVIR; NEVIRAPINE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; SAQUINAVIR; SIMVASTATIN; STAVUDINE; TENOFOVIR; TENOFOVIR DISOPROXIL; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZALCITABINE; ZIDOVUDINE; ANTI HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS AGENT;

ANEMIA; ARTERY INTIMA PROLIFERATION; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIARRHEA; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRY EYE; DRY SKIN; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; FATIGUE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEADACHE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FAILURE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEPATITIS; HEPATITIS B; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HIV ASSOCIATED LIPODYSTROPHY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA; INSOMNIA; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LACTIC ACIDOSIS; METABOLIC DISORDER; MYOPATHY; NAUSEA; NEPHROLITHIASIS; NEUROPATHY; NEUTROPENIA; OPTIC NEURITIS; PANCREATITIS; PARESTHESIA; PARONYCHIA; PERICARDIAL EFFUSION; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; RASH; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; TASTE DISORDER; VASCULITIS; XEROSTOMIA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; DRUG EFFECT; FEMALE; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FUNCTION; LIPID METABOLISM; MALE; MIDDLE AGED;

ANTI-HIV AGENTS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION, PULMONARY; LIPID METABOLISM; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; RISK FACTORS; VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION, LEFT;

EID: 33644878035     PISSN: 00097322     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.546465     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. 1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults. Website of the Centers for Disease Control. Available at: http://www.dvd.gov/mmwr/preview/ mmwrhtml/00018871.htm. Accessed December 7, 2005.
2. Yeni PG, Hammer SM, Hirsch MS, Saag MS, Schechter M, Carpenter CC, Fischl MA, Gatell JM, Gazzard BG, Jacobsen DM, Katzenstein DA, Montaner JS, Richman DD, Schooley RT, Thompson MA, Vella S, Volberding PA. Treatment for adult HIV infection: 2004 recommendations of the International AIDS Society: USA Panel. JAMA. 2004;292:251-265.
3. Michaels AD, Lederman RI, MacGregor IS, Cheitlin MD. Cardiovascular involvement in AIDS. Curr Probl Cardiol. 1997;22:109-148.
4. Holmberg SD, Moorman AC, Williamson JM, Tong TC, Ward DJ, Wood KC, Greenberg AE, Janssen RS, for the HIV Outpatients Study (HOPS) investigators. Protease inhibitors and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with HIV-1. Lancet. 2002;360:1747-1748.
5. Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (DAD) Study Group. Combination antiretroviral therapy and risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1993-2003.
6. Carr A, Samaras K, Thorisdottir A, Kaufmann GR, Chisholm DJ, Cooper DA. Diagnosis, prediction, and natural course of HIV-1 protease-inhibitor-associated lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia, and diabetes mellitus: a cohort study. Lancet. 1999;353:2093-2099.
7. Centers for Disease Control. Basic statistics from the Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/htm. Accessed December 7, 2005.
8. Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, Aschman DJ, Holmberg SD. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853-860.
9. Mocroft A, Vella S, Benfield TL, Chiesa A, Miller V, Gargalianos P, d'Aminio Monforte A, Yust I, Bruun JN, Phillips AN, Lundgren JD. Changing patterns of mortality across Europe in patients infected with HIV-1. Lancet. 1998;352:1752-1730.
10. Henry K, Melroe H, Huebsch I, Hermundson J, Levine C, Swenson L, Daley J. Severe premature coronary artery disease with protease inhibitors. Lancet. 1998;351:1328.
11. Bozzette SA, Ake CF, Tam HK, Chang SW, Louis TA. Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in patients treated for human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:702-710.
12. Coplan PM, Nikas A, Japour A, Cormier K, Maradit-Kremers H, Lewis R, Xu Y, DiNubile MJ. Incidence of myocardial infarction in randomized clinical trials of protease inhibitor-based antiretroviral therapy: an analysis of four different protease inhibitors. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2003;19:449-455.
13. Mary-Krause M, Cotte L, Simon A, Partisani M, Costagliola D, for the Clinical Epidemiology Group from the French Hospital Database. Increased risk of myocardial infarction with duration of protease inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected men. AIDS. 2003;17:2479-2486.
14. Klein D, Hurley LB, Quesenberry CP Jr, Sidney S. Do protease inhibitors increase the risk for coronary heart disease in patients with HIV-1 infection? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:471-477.
15. Barbara G, Di Lorenzo G, Cirelli A, Grisorio B, Lucchini A, Hazra C, Barbarini G. An open-label, prospective, observational study of the incidence of coronary artery disease in patients with HIV infection receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Ther. 2003;25:2405-2418.
16. David MH, Hornung R, Fichtenbaum CJ. Ischemic cardiovascular disease in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV/AIDS. 2002;34:98-102.
17. Matetzky S, Domingo M, Kar S, Noe M, Shah PK, Kaul S, Daar E, Cercek B. Acute myocardial infarction in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:457-460.
18. Escaut L, Monsuez JJ, Chironi G, Merad M, Teicher E, Smadja D, Simon A, Vittecoq D. Coronary artery disease in HIV infected patients. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29:969-973.
19. Mehta NJ, Khan IA. HIV-associated coronary artery disease. Angiology. 2003;54:269-275.
20. Ambrose JA, Gould RB, Kurian DC, DeVoe MC, Pearlstein NB, Coppola JT, Siegal FP. Frequency of and outcome of acute coronary syndromes in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Cardiol. 2003;92:301-303.
21. Varriale P, Saravi G, Hernandez E, Carbon F. Acute myocardial infarction in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Am Heart J. 2004;147:55-59.
22. Hsue PY, Giri K, Erickson S, MacGregor JS, Younes N, Shergill A, Waters DD. Clinical features of acute coronary syndromes in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Circulation. 2004;109:316-319.
23. Antman EM, Cohen M, Bemink PJ, McCabe CH, Horacek T, Papuchis G, Mautner B, Corbalan R, Radley D, Braunwald E. The TIMI risk score for unstable angina/non-ST elevation MI: a method for prognostication and therapeutic decision making. JAMA. 2000;284:835-842.
24. Trachiotis GD, Alexander EP, Senator D, Gharagozloo F. Cardiac surgery in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;76:1114-1118.
25. Hsue PY, Lo JC, Franklin A, Bolger AF, Martin JG, Deeks SG, Waters DD. Progression of atherosclerosis as assessed by carotid ultima-media thickness in patients with HIV infection. Circulation. 2004;109:1603-1608.
26. Vita JA, Keaney JF Jr. Endothelial function: a barometer of cardiac risk? Circulation. 2002;106:640-642.
27. Davignon J, Ganz P. Role of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2004;109:(suppl III):III-27-III-32.
28. Bonnet D, Aggoun Y, Szezepanski I, Bellal N, Blanche S. Arterial stiffness and endothelial dysfunction in HIV-infected children. AIDS. 2004;18:1037-1041.
29. Stein JH, Klein MA, Bellehumeur JL, McBride PE, Wiebe DA, Otvos JD, Sosman JM. Use of human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease inhibitors is associated with atherogenic lipoprotein changes and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation. 2001;104:257-262.
30. Seigneur M, Constans J, Blann A, Renard M, Pellegrin JL, Conri C. Soluble adhesion molecules and endothelial cell damage in HIV infected patients. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:646-649.
31. De Gaetano Donati K, Rabagliati R, Tumbarello M, Tacconelli E, Amore C, Cauda R, Lacoviello L. Increased soluble markers of endothelial dysfunction in HIV-positive patients under highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2003;17:765-768.
32. Rusnati M, Presta M. HIV-1 Tat protein and endothelium: from protein/cell interaction to AIDS-associated pathologies. Angiogenesis. 2002;5:141-151.
33. Paladugu R, Fu W, Conklin BS, Lin PH, Lumsden AB, Yao Q, Chen C. HIV Tat protein causes endothelial dysfunction in porcine coronary arteries. J Vasc Surg. 2003;38:549-555.
34. Aupeix K, Hugel B, Martin T, Bischoff P, Lill H, Pasquali JL, Freyssinet JM. The significance of shed membrane particles during programmed cell death in vitro, and in vivo, in HIV-1 infection. J Clin Invest. 1997;99:1546-1554.
35. Martin S, Tesse A, Hugel B, Martinez MC, Morel O, Freyssinet JM, Andriantsitohaina R. Shed membrane particles from T lymphocytes impair endothelial function and regulate endothelial protein expression. Circulation. 2004;109:1653-1659.
36. Maggi P, Serio G, Epifani G, Fiorentino G, Saracino A, Fico C, Perilli F, Lillo A, Ferraro S, Gargiulo M, Chirianni A, Angarano G, Regina G, Pastore G. Premature lesions of the carotid vessels in HIV-1-infected patients treated with protease inhibitors. AIDS. 2000;14:123-128.
37. Depairon M, Chessex S, Sudre P, Rodondi N, Doser N, Chave JP, Riesen W, Nicod P, Darioloi R, Telenti A, Mooser V, for the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Premature atherosclerosis in HIV-infected individuals: focus on protease inhibitor therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:329-334.
38. Seminari E, Pan A, Voltini G, Carnevale G, Maserati R, Minoli L, Meneghetti G, Tinelli C, Testa S. Assessment of atherosclerosis using carotid ultrasonography in a cohort of HIV-positive patients treated with protease inhibitors. Atherosclerosis. 2002;162:433-438.
39. Chironi G, Escaut L, Gariepy J, Cogny A, Teicher E, Monsuez JJ, Levenson J, Simon A, Vittecoq D. Carotid intima-media thickness in heavily pretreated HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;32:490-493.
40. Mercie P, Thiébaut R, Lavignolle V, Pellegrin JL, Yvorra-Vives MC, Morlat P, Ragnaud JM, Dupon M, Malvy D, Bellet H. Evaluation of cardiovascular risk factors in HIV-1 infected patients using carotid intima-media thickness measurement. Ann Med. 2002;34:55-63.
41. Hazenberg MD, Stuart JW, Otto SA, Borleffs JC, Boucher CA, de Boer RJ, Miedema F, Hamann D. T-cell division in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 infection is mainly due to immune activation: a longitudinal analysis in patients before and during highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Blood. 2000;95:249-255.
42. Hellerstein M, Hanley MB, Cesar D, Siler S, Papageorgopoulos C, Schmidt D, Hoh R, Neese R, Macallan D, Decks S. Directly measured kinetics of circulating T lymphocytes m normal and HIV-1-infected humans. Nat Med. 1999;5:83-89.
43. Valdez H, Connick E, Smith KY, Lederman MM, Bosch RJ, Kim RS, St Clair M, Kuritzkes DR, Kessler H, Fox L, Blanchard-Vargas M, Landay A, for the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 375 Team. Limited immune restoration after 3 years' suppression of HIV-1 replication in patients with moderately advanced disease. AIDS. 2002;16:1859-1866.
44. Hunt PW, Martin JN, Sinclair E, Bredt B, Hagos E, Lampiris H, Deeks S. T cell activation is associated with lower CD4+ T cell gains in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with sustained viral suppression during antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:1534-1543.
45. Hansson GK, Jonasson L, Lojsthed B, Stemme S, Kocher O, Gabbiani G. Localization of T lymphocytes and macrophages in fibrous and complicated human atherosclerotic plaques. Atherosclerosis. 1988;72:135-141.
46. Zhou X, Nicoletti A, Elhage R, Hansson GK. Transfer of CD4+ T cells aggravates atherosclerosis in immunodeficient apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Circulation. 2000;102:2919-2922.
47. Frostegard J, Ulfgren AK, Nyberg P, Hedin U, Swedenborg J, Andersson U, Hansson GK. Cytokine expression in advanced human atherosclerotic plaques: dominance of proinflammatory (Th1) and macrophage-stimulating cytokines. Atherosclerosis. 1999;145:33-43.
48. Salomon RN, Hughes CC, Schoen FJ, Payne DD, Pober JS, Libby P. Human coronary transplantation-associated arteriosclerosis: evidence for a chronic immune reaction to activated graft endothelial cells. Am J Pathol. 1991;138:791-798.
49. Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature. 2002;420:868-874.
50. Ridker PM. Clinical application of C-reactive protein for cardiovascular disease detection and prevention. Circulation. 2003;107:363-369.
51. Zwaka TP, Hombach V, Torzewski J. C-reactive protein-mediated low density lipoprotein uptake by macrophages: implications for atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2001;103:1194-1197.
52. Pasceri V, Willerson JT, Yeh ETH. Direct proinflammatory effect of C-reactive protein on human endothelial cells. Circulation. 2000;102:2165-2168.
53. Alonso-Villaverde C, Coll B, Parra S, Montero M, Calvo N, Tous N, Joven J, Masana L. Atherosclerosis in patients infected with HIV is influenced by a mutant monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 allele. Circulation. 2004;110:2204-2209.
54. Shen YM, Frenkel EP. Thrombosis and a hypercoagulable state in HIV-infected patients. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2004;10:277-280.
55. Stahl CP, Wideman CS, Spira TJ, Haff EC, Hixon GJ, Evatt BL. Protein S deficiency in men with long-term human immunodeficiency virus infection. Blood. 1993;81:1801-1807.
56. Aukrust P, Bjornsen S, Lunden B, Otterdal K, Ng EC, Ameln W, Ueland T, Muller F, Solum NO, Brosstad F, Froland SS. Persistently elevated levels of von Willebrand factor antigen in HIV infection: downregulation during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Thromb Haemost. 2000;84:183-187.
57. Palella FJ Jr, Deloria-Knoll M, Chmiel JS, Moorman AC, Wood KC, Greenberg AE, Holmberg SD, for the HIV Outpatients Study investigators. Survival benefit of initiating antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected persons in different CD4+ cell strata. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:620-626.
58. Wynn GH, Zapor MJ, Smith BH, Wortmann G, Oesterheld JR, Armstrong SC, Cozza KL. Med-Psych drug-drug interactions update: antiretrovirals, part 1: overview, history, and focus on protease inhibitors. Psychosomatics. 2004;45:262-270.
59. Duran S, Spire B, Raffi F, Walter V, Bouhour D, Journot V, Cailleton V, Leport C, Moatti JP, for the APROCO Cohort Study Group. Self-reported symptoms after initiation of a protease inhibitor in HIV-infected patients and their impact on adherence to HAART. HIV Clin Trials. 2001;2:38-45.
60. D'Arminio Monforte A, Lepri AC, Rezza G, Pezzzotti P, Antinori A, Philllips AN, Angarano G, Colangeli V, DeLuca A, Ippolito G, Caggese L, Soscia F, Filice G, Gritti F, Narcisco P, Tirelli U, Moroni M. Insights into the reasons for discontinuation of the first highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimen in a cohort of antiretroviral naïve patients. I.CO.N.A. Study Group: Italian Cohort of Antiretroviral Naïve Patients. AIDS. 2000;14:499-507.
61. Fichtenbaum CT, Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL. Pharmacokinetic interactions between protease inhibitors and statins in HIV seronegative volunteers: ACTG Study A5047. AIDS. 2002;16:569-577.
62. Hare CB, Vu MP, Grunfeld C. Simvastatin-nelfinavir interaction implicated in rhabdomyolysis and death. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:E111-E112.
63. Zapor MJ, Cozza KL, Wynn GH, Wortmann GW, Armstrong SC. Med-Psych drug-drug interactions update: antiretrovirals, part 2: focus on non-protease inhibitor antiretrovirals (NRTIs, NNRTIs and fusion inhibitors). Psychcosomatics. 2004;45:524-535.
64. Balzarini J. Current status of the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Curr Top Med Chem. 2004;4:921-944.
65. Hardy H, Skolnick PR. Enfuvirtide, a new fusion inhibitor for therapy of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pharmacotherapy. 2004;24:198-211.
66. Grunfeld C, Pang M, Doerrier W, Shigenaga JK, Jensen P, Feingold KR. Lipids, lipoproteins, triglyceride clearance, and cytokines in HIV infection and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;74:1045-1052.
67. Mulligan K, Grunfeld C, Tai VW, Algren H, Pang M, Chernoff DN, Lo JC, Schambelan M. Hyperlipidemia and insulin resistance are induced by protease inhibitors independent of changes in body composition in patients with HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;23:35-43.
68. Purnell JQ, Zambon A, Knopp RH, Pizzuti DJ, Achari R Leonard JM, Locke C, Brunzell JD. Effect of ritonavir on lipids and post-heparin lipase activities in normal subjects. AIDS. 2000;14:51-57.
69. Sadler BM, Piliero PJ, Preston SL, Lloyd PP, Lou Y, Stein DS. Pharmacokinetics and safety of amprenavir and ritonavir following multiple-dose, co-administration to healthy volunteers. AIDS. 2001;15:1009-1018.
70. Noor MA, Lo JC, Mulligan K, Schwartz JM, Halvorsen RA, Schambelan M, Grunfeld C. Metabolic effects of indinavir in healthy HIV-seronegative men. AIDS. 2001;15:F11-F18.
71. Lee GA, Seneviratne T, Noor MA, Lo JC, Mulligan K, Schwartz JM, Schambelan M, Grunfeld C. The metabolic effects of lopinavir/ritonavir in HIV-negative men. AIDS. 2004;18:641-649.
72. Riddler SA, Smit E, Cole SR, Li R Chmiel JS, Dobs A, Palella F, Visscher B, Evans R, Kingsley LA. Impact of HIV infection and HAART on serum lipids in men. JAMA. 2003;289:2978-2982.
73. Kannel WB, Giordano M. Long-term cardiovascular risk with protease inhibitors and management of the dyslipidemia. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:901-906.
74. Friis-Møller N, Weber R, Reiss P, Thiebaut R, Kirk O, d'Arminio Monforte A, Pradier C, Morfeldt L, Mateu S, Law M, El-Sadr W, De Wit S, Sabin CA, Phillips AN, Lundgren JD, for the DAD Study Group. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in HIV patients: association with antiretroviral therapy: results from the DAD study. AIDS. 2003;17:1179-1193.
75. Grinspoon S, Carr A. Cardiovascular risk and body-fat abnormalities in HIV-infected adults. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:48-62.
76. Lo JC, Mulligan K, Tai VW, Algren H, Schambelan M. "Buffalo hump" in men with HIV-1 infection. Lancet. 1998;351:871-875.
77. Sattler F, Qian D, Louie S, Johnson D, Briggs W, DeQuattro V, Dube MP. Elevated blood pressure in subjects with lipodystrophy. AIDS. 2001;15:2001-2010.
78. Walli R, Herfort O, Michl GM, Demant T, Jager H, Dieterle C, Bogner JR, Landgraf R, Goebel FD. Treatment with protease inhibitors associated with peripheral insulin resistance and impaired oral glucose tolerance in HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS. 1998;12:F167-F173.
79. Martinez E, Mocroft A, Garcia-Viejo MA, Perez-Cuevas JB, Blanco JL, Mallolas J, Bianchi L, Conget I, Blanch J, Phillips A, Gatell JM. Risk of lipodystrophy in HIV-1-infected patients treated with protease inhibitors: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2001;357:592-598.
80. Jones SP, Doran DA, Leatt PB, Maher B, Pirmohamed M. Short-term exercise training improves body composition and hyperlipidaemia in HIV-positive individuals with lipodystrophy. AIDS. 2001;15:2049-2051.
81. Driscoll SD, Meininger GE, Lareau MT, Dolan SE, Killilea KM, Hadigan CM, Lloyd-Jones DM, Klibanski A, Frontera WR, Grinspoon SK. Effects of exercise training and metformin on body composition and cardiovascular indices in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2004;18:465-473.
82. Jung O, Bickel M, Ditting T, Rickerts V, Welk T, Helm EB, Staszewski S, Geiger H. Hypertension in HIV-1-infected patients and its impact on renal and cardiovascular integrity. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004;19:2250-2258.
83. Gazzamso C, Bruno R, Garzaniti A, Giordanetti S, Fratino P, Sacchi P, Filice G. Hypertension among HIV patients: prevalence and relationships to insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. J Hypertens. 2003;21:1377-1382.
84. Chow DC, Souza SA, Chen R, Richmond-Crum SM, Grandinetti A, Shikuma C. Elevated blood pressure in HIV-infected individuals receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Clin Trials. 2003;4:411-416.
85. Cattelan AM, Trevenzoli M, Sasset L, Rinaldi L, Balasso V, Cadrobbi P. Indinavir and systemic hypertension. AIDS. 2001;15:805-807.
86. Bergersen BM, Sankvik L, Dunlop O, Birkeland K, Bruun JN. Prevalence of hypertension in HIV-positive patients on highly active retroviral therapy (HAART) compared with HAART-naïve and HIV-negative controls: results from a Norwegian study of 721 patients. Eur J Clin Micrbiol Infect Dis. 2003;22:731-736.
87. Smith CJ, Levy I, Sabin CA, Kaya E, Johnson MA, Lipman MC. Cardiovascular disease risk factors and antiretroviral therapy in an HIV-positive UK population. HIV Med. 2004;5:88-92.
88. Hadigan C, Meigs JB, Wilson PWF, D'Agostino RB, Davis B, Basgoz N, Sax PE, Grinspoon S. Prediction of coronary heart disease risk in HIV-infected patiente with fat redistribution. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:909-916.
89. Dubé MP, Stein JH, Aberg JA, Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG, Tashima KT, Henry WK, Currier JS, Sprecher D, Glesby MJ, for the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group Cardiovascular Subcommittee. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America and the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:613-627.
90. Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, Segal Y, Aberg JA, Blaschke T, Alston B, Fang F, Kosel B, Aweeka F, and the NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Pharmacokinetic interactions between protease inhibitors and statins in HIV seronegative volunteers: ACTG study A5047. AIDS. 2002;16:569-577.
91. Sanne I, Piliero P, Squires K, Thiry K, Schnittman S, for the AI424-007 Clinical Trial Group. Results of a phase 2 clinical trial at 48 weeks (AI424-007): a dose-ranging, safety, and efficacy comparative trial of atazanavir at three doses in combination with didanosine and stavudine in antiretorviral-näive subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;32:18-29.
92. Badiou S, Merle de Boever C, Dupuy AM, Baillat V, Cristol JP, Reynes J. Fenofibrate improves the atherogenic lipid profile and enhances LDL resistance to oxidation in HIV-positive adults. Atherosclerosis. 2004;172:273-279.
93. Grundy SM, Brewer HB Jr, Cleeman JI, Smith SC Jr, Lenfant C. Definition of metabolic syndrome: report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation. 2004;109:433-438.
94. Grundy SM, Hansen B, Smith SC, Cleeman JI, Kahn RA. Clinical management of metabolic syndrome: report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Diabetes Association conference on scientific issues related to management. Circulation. 2004;109:551-556.
95. Feldman JG, Goldwasser P, Holman S, DeHovitz J, Minkoff H. C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of mortality in women with HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;32:210-214.
96. Niaura R, Shadel WG, Morrow K, Tashima K, Flanigan T, Abrams DB. Human immunodeficiency virus infection. AIDS, and smoking cessation: the time is now. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:808-812.
97. Domelas EA, Sampson RA, Gray JF, Waters D, Thompson PD. A randomized controlled trial of smoking cessation counseling after myocardial infarction. Prev Med. 2000;30:261-268.
98. Wewers ME, Neidig JL, Kihm KE. The feasibility of a nurse-managed, peer-lead tobacco cessation intervention among HIV-positive smokers. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2000;11:37-44.
99. Lazev A, Vidrine D, Arduino R, Gritz E. Increasing access to smoking cessation treatment in a low-income, HIV-positive population: the feasibility of using cellular telephones. Nicotine Tob Res. 2004;6:281-286.
100. Herskowitz A, Vlahov D, Willoughby S, Chaisson RE, Schulman SP, Neumann DA, Baughman KL. Prevalence and incidence of left ventricular dysfunction in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Cardiol. 1993;71:955-958.
101. Herskowitz A, Wu TC, Willoughby SB, Vlahov D, Ansari AA, Beschomer WE, Baughman KL. Myocarditis and cardiotropic vital infection associated with severe left ventricular dysfunction in late-stage infection with human immunodeficiency virus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;24:1025-1032.
102. Anderson DW, Virmani R, Reilly JM, O'Leary T, Cunnion RE, Robinowitz M, Macher AM, Punja U, Villaflor ST, Parrillo JE, Roberts WC. Prevalent myocarditis at necropsy in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;11:792-799.
103. Lipshultz SE, Easley KA, Orav EJ, Kaplan S, Stare TJ, Bricker JT, Lai WW, Moodie DS, Sopko G, Colan SD. Cardiac dysfunction and mortality in HIV-infected children: the Prospective P2C2 HIV Multicenter Study: Pediatric Pulmonary and Cardiac Complications of Vertically Transmitted HIV Infection (P2Cs HIV) Study Group. Circulation. 2000;102:1542-1548.
104. D'Amati G, Di Gioia CR, Gallo P. Pathological findings of HIV-associated cardiovascular disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001;946:23-45.
105. Barbaro G. Cardiovascular manifestations of HIV infection. Circulation. 2002;106:1420-1425.
106. Pugliese A, Isnardi D, Saini A, Scarabelli T, Raddino R, Torre D. Impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-positive patients with cardiac involvement. J Infect. 2000;40:282-284.
107. Speich R, Jenni R, Opravil M, Pfab M, Russi EW. Primary pulmonary hypertension in HIV infection. Chest. 1991;100:1268-1271.
108. Cool CD, Rai PR, Yeager ME, Hernandez-Saavedra D, Serls AE, Bull TM, Geraci MW, Brown KK, Routes JM, Tuder RM, Voelkel NF. Expression of human herpesvirus 8 in primary pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1113-1122.
109. Chang Y, Cesarman E, Pessin MS, Lee F, Culpepper J, Knowles DM, Moore PS. Identification of herpes-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Science. 1994;266:1865-1869.
110. Jacobson LP, Jenkins FJ, Springer G, Munoz A, Shah KV, Phair J, Zhang Z, Armenian H. Interaction of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and human herpesvirus type 8 infections on the incidence of Kaposi's sarcoma. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:1940-1949.
111. Martin JN, Ganem DE, Osmond DH, Page-Shafer KA, Macrae D, Kedes DH. Sexual transmission and the natural history of human herpesvirus 8 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:948-954.
112. Zuber JP, Calmy A, Evison JM, Hasse B, Schiffer V, Wagels T, Nuesch R, Magenta L, Ledergerber B, Jenni R, Speich R, Opravil M, for the Swiss HIV Cohort Study group. Pulmonary arterial hypertension related to HIV infection: improved hemodynamics and survival associated with antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:1178-1185.
113. Sitbon O, Gressin V, Speich R, Macdonald PS, Oparavil M, Cooper DA, Fourme T, Humbert M, Delfraissy JF, Simonneau G. Bosentan for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;170:1212-1217.
114. Heidenreich PA, Eisenberg MJ, Kee LL, Somelofski CA, Hollander H, Schiller NB, Cheitlin MD. Pericardial effusion in AIDS. Circulation. 1995;92:3229-3234.
115. Chen Y, Brennessel D, Walters J, Johnson M, Rosner F, Raza M. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated pericardial effusion: report of 40 cases and review of the literature. Am Heart J. 1999;137:516-521.
116. Kaplan LD, Afridi NA, Holmvang G, Zukerberg LR. Case 31-2003: a 44-year-old man with HIV infection and a right atrial mass. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1369-1377.
117. Cammarosano C, Lewis W. Cardiac lesion in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). J Am. Coll Cardiol. 1985;5:703-706.