Disinfection using ultraviolet radiation as an antimicrobial agent: A review and synthesis of mechanisms and concerns

PDA Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology

Volumn 60, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-16

  Piluso, Landon G ^a,b   Moffatt Smith, Carla ^a  

^a cGMPcarla Consultants   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Disinfectants; Drug resistance; Microbial; UV sanitization

Indexed keywords

ANTHRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CHEMICAL AGENT; DAUNORUBICIN; DISINFECTANT AGENT; DOXORUBICIN;

ADAPTATION; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; DESENSITIZATION; DISINFECTION; DNA DAMAGE; DNA REPAIR; DRUG INDUSTRY; DRUG MANUFACTURE; DRUG QUALITY; DRUG SAFETY; HOSPITAL; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SANITATION; STANDARD; ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIA; DISINFECTANTS; DISINFECTION; DNA DAMAGE; DNA, BACTERIAL; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; GUIDELINE ADHERENCE; GUIDELINES; GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; PLASMIDS; ULTRAVIOLET RAYS;

EID: 33144488393     PISSN: 10797440     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. EPA. Guidance Manual on Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants; 1999.
2. EPA. Guidance Manual for Compliance with the Filtration and Disinfection Requirements for Public Water Systems using Surface Water Systems; 1991.
3. FDA. Guidance for Industry: Sterile Drug Products Produced by Aseptic Processing, Current Good Manufacturing Practice; 2004, GPO.
4. L. Sehulster and R. Y. Chinn, Guidelines for environmental infection control in health-care facilities. Recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). MMWR Recomm. Rep., 52, (RR-10), 1-42 (2003).
5. V. F. Denny, E. M. Kopis, and F. J. Marsik, Elements for a successful disinfection program in the pharmaceutical environment. PDA J. Pharm. Sci. Technol., 53 (3), 115-124 (1999).
6. B. Gruendemann and S. Mangum, Infection Prevention in Surgical Settings, 1st ed.; Elsevier: Place of Publication, 2001; p 387.
7. P. Xu, J. Peccia, P. Fabian, J. W. Martyny, K. P. Fennelly, M. Hernandez, and Miller, S. L. Efficacy of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation of upper-room air in inactivating airborne bacterial spores and mycobacteria in full-scale studies. Atmos. Environ., 37 (3), 405 (2003).
8. C. Cotton and L. Passantino, Regulations in the United States: requirements and guidance for ultraviolet disinfection of drinking water. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 4, S57 (2005).
9. C. W. Donnelly, Inside microbiology: getting a handle on Listeria. Food Safety Magazine, 2002/2003.
10. S. Jun, J. Irudayaraj, A. Demirci, and D. Geiser, Pulsed UV-light treatment of corn meal for inactivation of Aspergillus niger spores. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 38, 883 (2003).
11. M. Hosseini, M. Sawyer, C. Schore, J. Vu, K. Nabaglo, C. Pina, and W. Smith, Inactivating adventitious viruses while preserving biological activity. Treated fetal bovine serum with pulsed UV light. BioPharm International, 35-40 (2002).
12. S. S. Block, Ed. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation, 5th ed.; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, 2001.
13. TheBakerCompany, EdgeGard Sales Brochure 2005.
14. FisherScientific. Fisher Catalog 2004/2005.
15. C. B. Beggs and P. A. Sleigh, A quantitative method for evaluating the germicidal effect of upper room UV fields. J. Aerosol Sci., 33 (12), 1681 (2002).
16. P. W. Brickner, R. L. Vincent, M. First, E. Nardell, M. Murray, and W. Kaufman, The application of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation to control transmission of airborne disease: bioterrorism countermeasure. Public Health Rep., 118 (2), 99-114 (2003).
17. E. A. Nardell, Use and misuse of germicidal UV air disinfection for TB in high-prevalence settings. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis., 6 (8), 647-648 (2002).
18. S. T. Summerfeit, Ozonation and UV irradiation - an introduction and examples of current applications. Aquacultural Engineering, 28 (1-2), 21 (2003).
19. G. McDonnell and A. D. Russell, Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 12 (1), 147-179 (1999).
20. E. Heir, G. Sundheim, and A. L. Hoick, The qacG gene on plasmid pST94 confers resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in staphylococci isolated from the food industry. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 86 (3), 378-388 (1999).
21. J. Bjorland, T. Steinum, M. Sunde, S. Waage, and E. Heir, Novel plasmid-borne gene qacJ mediates resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in equine Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus simulans, and Staphylococcus intermedius. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 47 (10), 3046-3052 (2003).
22. L. J. Rothschild and C. S. Cockell, Radiation: microbial evolution, ecology, and relevance to Mars missions. Mutat. Res., 430 (2), 281-291 (1999).
23. H. Utsumi and M. M. Elkind, Potentially lethal damage: Qualitative differences between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and implications for 'single-hit' killing. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. Relat. Stud. Phys. Chem. Med., 35 (4), 373-380 (1979).
24. B. Kudriashov Iu, Main principles of radiobiology. Radiats. Biol. Radioecol., 41 (5), 531-547 (2001).
25. H. Harm, Damage and repair in mammalian cells after exposure to non-ionizing radiations. III. Ultraviolet and visible light irradiation of cells of placental mammals, including humans, and determination of photorepairable damage in vitro. Mutat. Res. 69 (1), 167-176 (1980).
26. C. Petit and A. Sancar, Nucleotide excision repair: from E. coli to man. Biochimie, 81 (1-2), 15-25 (1999).
27. S. Nakajima, et al. Cloning and characterization of a gene (UVR3) required for photorepair of 6-4 photoproducts in Arabidopsis thaliana. Nucleic Acids Res., 26 (2), 638-644 (1998).
28. A. Yasui and S. J. McCready, Alternative repair pathways for UV-induced DNA damage. BioEssays, 20 (4), 291-297 (1998).
29. L. Marcucci, P. Petrinelli, A. Antonelli, and R. Elli, Expression of genes carried by pR plasmid in damaged E. coli and mouse cells. Mutat. Res., 309 (1), 53-61 (1994).
30. J. W. Drake, The distribution of rates of spontaneous mutation over viruses, prokaryotes, and eukaryotes. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 870, 100-107 (1999).
31. J. W. Drake, B. Charlesworth, D. Charlesworth, and J. F. Crow, Rates of spontaneous mutation. Genetics, 148 (4), 1667-1686 (1998).
32. T. Lindahl, P. Karran, and R. D. Wood, DNA excision repair pathways. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev., 7 (2), 158-169 (1997).
33. M. D'Errico, M. Teson, A. Calcagnile, L. Proietti De Santis, O. Nikaido, E. Botta, G. Zambruno, M. Stefanini, and E. Dogliotti, Apoptosis and efficient repair of DNA damage protect human keratinocytes against UVB. Cell Death Differ., 10 (6), 754-756 (2003).
34. Kaina, B. DNA damage-triggered apoptosis: critical role of DNA repair, double-strand breaks, cell proliferation and signaling. Biochem. Pharmacol., 66 (8), 1547-1554 (2003).
35. L. Hartwell, T. Weinert, L. Kadyk, and B. Garvik, Cell cycle checkpoints, genomic integrity, and cancer. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 59, 259-263 (1994).
36. L. H. Hartwell and T. A. Weinert, Checkpoints: controls that ensure the order of cell cycle events. Science 246 (4930), 629-634 (1989).
37. A. G. Paulovich, D. P. Toczyski, and L. H. Hartwell, When checkpoints fail. Cell 88 (3), 315-321 (1997).
38. A. Kuzminov, Recombinational repair of DNA damage in Escherichia coli and bacteriophage lambda. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 63 (4), 751-813, (1999) table of contents.
39. A. Kuzminov and F. W. Stahl, Double-strand end repair via the RecBC pathway in Escherichia coli primes DNA replication. Genes Dev. 13 (3), 345-356 (1999).
40. J. Cadet, A. G. Bourdat, C. D'Ham, V. Duarte, D. Gasparutto, A. Romieu, and Ravanat, J. L. Oxidative base damage to DNA: specificity of base excision repair enzymes. Mutat. Res. 462 (2-3), 121-128 (2000).
41. Y. W. Kow, Base excision repair in E. coli - an overview. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 726, 178-180 (1994).
42. D. P. Batty and R. D. Wood, Damage recognition in nucleotide excision repair of DNA. Gene 241 (2), 193-204 (2000).
43. R. D. Wood, S. J. Araujo, R. R. Ariza, R. R., D. P. Batty, M. Biggerstaff, E. Evans, P. H. Gaillard, D. Gunz, B. Koberle, I. Kuraoka, J. G. Moggs, J. K. Sandall, and M. K. Shivji, DNA damage recognition and nucleotide excision repair in mammalian cells. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 65, 173-182 (2000).
44. J. M. Hansen and H. L. Shaffer, Sterilization and Preservation by Radiation Sterilization. In Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation; Block, S. S., Ed; Lippincott Williams & Wilkens: Philadelphia, 2001; pp 729-746.
45. rd and M. M. Peel, Disinfection by Ultraviolet Irradiation. In Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation; Block, S. S., Ed.; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, 2001; pp 823-851.
46. R. Wolfson and J. M. Pasachoff, Physics: Extended with Modern Physics, 1st ed.; Harper-Collins: Place of Publication, 1990; pp 1250.
47. A. I. Aronson and P. Fitz-James, Structure and morphogenesis of the bacterial spore coat. Bacteriol. Rev. 40 (2), 360-402 (1976).
48. A. Driks, Bacillus subtilis spore coat. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 63 (1), 1-20 (1999).
49. M. Paidhungat and P. Setlow, Role of ger proteins in nutrient and nonnutrient triggering of spore germination in Bacillus subtilis. J. Bacteriol. 182 (9), 2513-2519 (2000).
50. M. F. Hullo, I. Moszer, A. Danchin, and I. Martin-Verstraete, CotA of Bacillus subtilis is a copper-dependent laccase. J. Bacteriol. 183 (18), 5426-5430 (2001).
51. P. Setlow, Mechanisms for the prevention of damage to DNA in spores of Bacillus species. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 49, 29-54 (1995).
52. P. Setlow, Resistance of spores of Bacillus species to ultraviolet light. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 38 (2-3), 97-104 (2001).
53. J. E. J. Donnellan and R. Setlow, Thymine photoproducts but not thymine dimers are found in ultraviolet irradiated bacterial spores. Science, 149 308-310 (1965).
54. P. Fajardo-Cavazos and W. L. Nicholson, Molecular dissection of mutations in the Bacillus subtilis spore photoproduct lyase gene which affect repair of spore DNA damage caused by UV radiation. J. Bacteriol. 177 (15), 4402-4409 (1995).
55. T. A. Slieman, R. Rebeil, and W. L. Nicholson, Spore photoproduct (SP) lyase from Bacillus subtilis specifically binds to and cleaves SP (5-thyminyl-5,6-dihydrothymine) but not cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers in UV-irradiated DNA. J. Bacteriol. 182 (22), 6412-6417 (2000).
56. Y. Xue and W. L. Nicholson, The two major spore DNA repair pathways, nucleotide excision repair and spore photoproduct lyase, are sufficient for the resistance of Bacillus subtilis spores to artificial UV-C and UV-B but not to solar radiation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62 (7), 2221-2227 (1996).
57. W. L. Nicholson and B. Galeano, UV resistance of Bacillus anthracis spores revisited: validation of Bacillus subtilis spores as UV surrogates for spores of B. anthracis Sterne. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69 (2), 1327-1330 (2003).
58. S. F. Little and G. B. Knudson, Comparative efficacy of Bacillus anthracis live spore vaccine and protective antigen vaccine against anthrax in the guinea pig. Infect. Immun. 52 (2), 509-512 (1986).
59. L. T. Chang, J. E. Lennox, and R. W. Tuveson, Induced mutation in UV-sensitive mutants of Aspergillus nidulans and Neurospora crassa. Mutat. Res. 5 (2), 217-224 (1968).
60. J. R. De Lucas, S. Valenciano, A. I. Dominguez, G. Turner, and F. Laborda, Characterization of oleate-nonutilizing mutants of Aspergillus nidulans isolated by the 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole positive selection method. Arch. Microbiol. 168 (6), 504-512 (1997).
61. G. Kai and A. S. Weber, Streptomycin-resistant mutant production in a continuous-flow UV mutation device. J. Ind. Microbiol. 8 (2), 107-112 (1991).
62. A. Mikoc, I. Ahel, and V. Gamulin, Construction and characterization of a Streptomyces rimosus recA mutant: the RecA-deficient strain remains viable. Mol. Gen. Genet. 264 (3), 227-232 (2000).
63. M. Belosevic, S. A. Craik, J. L. Stafford, N. F. Neumann, J. Kruithof, and D. W. Smith, Studies on the resistance/reactivation of Giardia muris cysts and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts exposed to medium-pressure ultraviolet radiation. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 204 (1), 197-203 (2001).
64. A. Aksozek, K. McClellan, K. Howard, J. Y. Niederkorn, and H. Alizadeh, Resistance of Acanthamoeba castellanii cysts to physical, chemical, and radiological conditions. J. Parasitol. 88 (3), 621-623 (2002).
65. T. Akiba, K. Koyama, Y. Ishiki, S. Kimura, and T. Fukushima, On the mechanism of the development of multiple-drug-resistant clones of Shigella. Jpn. J. Microbiol. 4, 219-227 (1960).
66. T. Watanabe, Infective heredity of multiple drug resistance in bacteria. Bacteriol. Rev. 27, 87-115 (1963).
67. T. Watanabe, Infectious drug resistance in bacteria. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 56, 43-98 (1971).
68. J. Lederberg, Conjugal pairing in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 71 (4), 497-498 (1956).
69. E. B. Marsh, Jr. and D. H. Smith, R factors improving survival of Escherichia coli K-12 after ultraviolet irradiation. J. Bacteriol. 100 (1), 128-139 (1969).
70. P. H. Jenkins and W. T. Drabble, -lactamases of R factors derived from Shigella and Salmonella strains. J. Bacteriol. 108 (1), 159-165 (1971).
71. S. Howarth, Resistance to the bactericidal effect of ultraviolet radiation conferred on Enterobacteria by the colicine factor coli. J. Gen. Microbiol. 40 (1), 43-55 (1965).
72. K. E. Mortelmans and B. A. Stocker, Ultraviolet light protection, enhancement of ultraviolet light mutagenesis, and mutator effect of plasmid R46 in Salmonella typhimurium. J. Bacteriol. 128 (1), 271-282 (1976).
73. M. C. Meckes, Effect of UV light disinfection on antibiotic-resistant coliforms in wastewater effluents. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 43 (2), 371-377 (1982).
74. P. G. Guilfoile and C. R. Hutchinson, A bacterial analog of the mdr gene of mammalian tumor cells is present in Streptomyces peucetius, the producer of daunorubicin and doxorubicin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88 (19), 8553-8557 (1991).
75. P. Kaur and J. Russell, Biochemical coupling between the DrrA and DrrB proteins of the doxorubicin efflux pump of Streptomyces peucetius. J. Biol. Chem. 273 (28), 17933-17939 (1998).
76. P. Kaur, Expression and characterization of DrrA and DrrB proteins of Streptomyces peucetius in Escherichia coli: DrrA is an ATP binding protein, J. Bacteriol. 179 (3), 569-575 (1997).
77. N. Lomovskaya, S. K. Hong, S. U. Kim, L. Fonstein, K. Furuya, and R. C. Hutchinson, The Streptomyces peucetius drrC gene encodes a UvrA-like protein involved in daunorubicin resistance and production. J. Bacteriol. 178 (11), 3238-3245 (1996).
78. V. P. Ackerman, D. J. Groot Obbink, and T. Sivertsen, Transferable antibiotic resistance in a general hospital: A two year survey. Aust J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 61 (Part 2), 251-262 (1983).
79. C. L. Koh, M. E. Lim, and Y. H. Wong, Conjugal transfer of multiple antibiotic resistance from hospital isolates of Klebsiella to Escherichia coli. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 14 (3), 336-340 (1983).
80. R. W. Lacey and M. H. Richmond, The genetic basis of antibiotic resistance in S. aureus: The importance of gene transfer in the evolution of this organism in the hospital environment. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 236 (0), 395-412 (1974).
81. H. Pearce, S. Messager, and J. Y. Maillard, Effect of biocides commonly used in the hospital environment on the transfer of antibiotic-resistance genes in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Hosp. Infect. 43 (2), 101-107 (1999).
82. G. G. Frosner, W. Stephan, and H. Dichtelmuller, Inactivation of hepatitis A virus added to pooled human plasma by beta-propiolactone treatment and ultraviolet irradiation. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2 (4), 355-357 (1983).
83. A. M. Prince, W. Stephan, B. Brotman, and M. C. van den Ende, Evaluation of the effect of betapropiolactone/ultraviolet irradiation (BPL/UV) treatment of source plasma on hepatitis transmission by factor IX complex in chimpanzees. Thromb. Haemostasis 44 (3), 138-142 (1980).
84. W. Stephan, Inactivation of hepatitis viruses and HIV in plasma and plasma derivatives by treatment with beta-propiolactone/UV irradiation. Curr. Stud. Hematol. Blood Transfus. 56, 122-127 (1989).
85. W. Stephan, H. Berthold, and A. M. Prince, Effect, of combined treatment of serum containing hepatitis B virus with beta-propiolactone and ultraviolet irradiation. Vox Sang 41 (3), 134-138 (1981).
86. M. A. Butkus, M. P. Labare, J. A. Starke, K. Moon, and M. Talbot, Use of aqueous silver to enhance inactivation of coliphage MS-2 by UV disinfection. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70 (5), 2848-2853 (2004).
87. FDA, Guideline on Sterile Drug Products Produced by Aseptic Processing. 1987.
88. D. E. Connor and M. K. Eckman, Rotation of phenolic disinfectants. Pharmaceutical Technology 16 (9), 146-160 (1992).