Sensor technologies for monitoring metabolic activity in single cells - Part II: Nonoptical methods and applications

IEEE Sensors Journal

Volumn 4, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 412-429

  Yotter, Rachel A ^a   Wilson, Denise Michelle ^a  

^a University of Washington   (United States)

Author keywords

Carbon dioxide sensors; Cell metabolic activity; Chemical sensors; Electrochemical sensors; Glucose sensors; Ion selective membranes; Ion sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET); Light addressable potentiometric sensors (LAPS); Microelectrodes

Indexed keywords

CELLS; CHEMICAL SENSORS; DISEASES; METABOLISM; PH EFFECTS; SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO; TISSUE;

CELL METABOLIC ACTIVITY; QUARTZ CRYSTAL MICROBALANCES; SINGLE-CELL DETECTION; SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVES;

BIOSENSORS;

EID: 3142708629     PISSN: 1530437X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/JSEN.2004.830954     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. J. J. N. Rosenzweig and Z. Rosenzweig, "Novel fluorescent oxygen indicator for intracellular oxygen measurements," J. Biomed. Opt., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 404-409, July 2002.
2. P. D. O'Neal, A. M. Meledeo, M. V. Pishko, and G. L. Cote, "Feasibility of an on-line fluorescence-based optical sensor for oxygen monitoring in cell culture media," Proc. SPIE, vol. 4624, pp. 89-94, 2002.
3. Diamond General Catalog, Diamond General Corp. (Feb. 10, 2004). http://www.diamondgeneral.com/pdf/catalog/catalog.pdf'[Online]
4. K. N. Olsen, B. B. Budde, H. Siegumfeldt, K. B. Rechinger, M. Jakobsen, and H. Ingmer, "Noninvasive measurement of bacterial intracellular pH on a single-cell level with green fluorescent protein and fluorescence ratio imaging microscopy," Appl. Environ. Microbiol., pp. 4145-4147, Aug. 2002.
5. H. Siegumfeldt, K. B. Rechinger, and M. Jakobsen, "Use of fluorescence ratio imaging for intracellular pH determination of individual bacterial cells in mixed cultures," Microbiol., vol. 145, pp. 1703-1709, 1999.
6. R. B. Robey, O. Ruiz, A. V. P. Santos, J. Ma, F. Rear, L. J. Wang, C. J. Li, A. A. Bernardo, and J. A. L. Arruda, "pH-dependent fluorescence of a heterologously expressed Aequorea green fluorescent protein mutant: in situ spectral characteristics and applicability to intracellular pH estimation," Biochem., vol. 37, pp. 9894-9901, 1998.
7. G. Miesenbock, D. A. de Angelis, and J. E. Rothman, "Visualizing secretion and synaptic transmission with pH-sensitive green fluorescent proteins," Nature, vol. 394, pp. 192-195, 1998.
8. B. D. Bennett, T. L. Jetton, G. Ying, M. A. Magnuson, and D. W. Piston, "Quantitative subcellular imaging of glucose metabolism within intact pancreatic islets," J. Biol. Chem., vol. 271, no. 7, pp. 3647-3651, 1996.
9. J. C. Bernengo, F. Brau, and J. P. Steghens, "ATP measurements on single living cells: a dynamic approach," in Proc. IEEE 18th Annu. Int. Conf. EMBS, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Nov. 1996, pp. 1907-1908.
10. F. Brau, P. Helle, and J.-C. Bernengo, "Bioluminescence microscopy: application to ATP measurements in single living cells," Proc. SPIE, vol. 3197, pp. 205-212, 1997.
11. Live cell imaging of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, D. W. Piston. (Feb. 10, 2004). http://www.fitzpatrick.duke.edu/Events/PowerPointPresentations/ PP Presentation-Dave Piston.pdf [Online]
12. M. E. Lidstrom and D. R. Meldrum, "Life-on-a-chip," Nature, vol. 1, pp. 158-164, Nov. 2003.
13. R. Lansford, G. Bearman, and S. E. Fraser, "Resolution of multiple green fluorescent protein color variants and dyes using two-photon microscopy and imaging spectroscopy," J. Biomed. Opt., vol. 6, pp. 311-318, 2001.
14. J. Lippincott-Schwartz and G. H. Patterson, "Development and use of fluorescent protein markers in living cells," Science, vol. 300, pp. 87-91, 2003.
15. F. Kamme, R. Salunga, J. Yu, D.-T. Tran, J. Zhu, L. Luo, A. Bittner, H.-Q. Quo, N. Miller, J. Wan, and M. Erlander, "Single-cell microarray analysis in hippocampus CA1: Demonstration and validation of cellular heterogeneity," J. Neurosci., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3607-3615, 2003.
16. X. H. Xu, Q. Wan, S. V. Kyriacou, W. J. Brownlow, and M. E. Nowak, "Direct observation of substrate induction of resistance mechanism in Pseudomonas aeruginosa using single live cell imaging," Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., vol. 305, pp. 941-949, 2003.
17. K. Hakkila, M. Maksimow, A. Rosengren, M. Karp, and M. Virta, "Monitoring promoter activity in a single bacterial cell by using green and red fluorescent proteins," J. Microbiol. Meth., vol. 54, pp. 75-79, 2003.
18. C. J. Weijer, "Visualizing signals moving in cells," Science, vol. 300, pp. 96-100, 2003.
19. K. Holmstrøm, T. Tolker-Nielsen, and S. Molin, "Physiological states of individual Salmonella typhimurium cells monitored by in situ reverse transcription-PCR," J. Bacterial., vol. 181, no. 6, pp. 1733-1738, 1999.
20. S. Freeman, Biological Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2002, pp. 114-132.
21. J. Janata, Principles of Chemical Sensors. New York: Plenum, 1989.
22. M. Lehmann, W. Baumann, M. Birschwein, H.-J. Gahle, I. Freund, R. Ehret, S. Drechsler, H. Falzer, M. Kleintges, U. Sieben, and B. Wolf, "Simultaneous measurement of cellular respiration and acidification with a single CMOS ISFET," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 16, pp. 195-203, 2001.
23. Instructions for use: Clark style microelectrode with guard cathode, model 737GC, Diamond General Development Corp. (Sept. 2, 2003). http://www.diamondgeneral.com/pdf/manuals/737gc.pdf [Online]
24. H. Suzuki, N. Kojima, A. Sugama, and S. Fujita, "Micromachined clark oxygen electrode," in Proc. Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors Actuators, San Francisco, CA, June 24-27, 1991, pp. 339-342.
25. G. W. McLaughlin, K. Braden, B. Franc, and G. T. A. Kovacs, "Microfabricated solid-state dissolved oxygen sensor," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 83, pp. 138-148, 2002.
26. 2 using a micromachined dark-type oxygen electrode," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 431, pp. 249-259, 2001.
27. S.-K. Jung, W. Gorski, C. A. Aspinwall, L. M. Kauri, and R. T. Kennedy, "Oxygen microsensor and its application to single cells and mouse pancreatic islets," Anal. Chem., vol. 71, pp. 3642-3649, 1999.
28. B. J. Sargent and D. A. Gough, "Design and validation of the transparent oxygen sensor array," IEEE Trans. Biomed, Eng., vol. 38, pp. 476-482, Mar. 1991.
29. R. L. Poole, "Dissolved Oxygen Probe," U.S. patent 3 948 746, Apr. 6, 1976.
30. R. D. Hudson and G. M. Eaton, "The development of a solid-state, 5 ms dissolved oxygen sensor," in Proc. IEEE Oceans, Sept. 18-21, 1989, pp. 1588-1593.
31. B.-K. Sohn, "Some improvements in ISFET-based chemical sensors," in Proc. 8th Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors Actuators, Stockholm, Sweden, June 25-29, 1995, pp. 890-893.
32. D. R. Thevenot, K. Toth, R. A. Durst, and G. S. Wilson, "Electrochemical biosensors: recommended definitions and classification," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 16, pp. 121-131, 2001.
33. T. Ishiji, K. Takahashi, and A. Kira, "Amperometric carbon dioxide gas sensor based on electrode reduction of platinum oxide," Anal. Chem., vol. 65, pp. 2736-2739, 1993.
34. T. Ishiji, D. W. Chipman, T. Takahashi, and K. Takahashi, "Ampero-metric sensor for monitoring of dissolved carbon dioxide in seawater," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 76, pp. 265-269, 2001.
35. R. Fasching, F. Keplinger, G. Hanreich, G. Jobst. G. Urban, F. Kohl, and R. Chabicovsky, "A novel miniaturized sensor for carbon dioxide dissolved in liquids," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 78, pp. 291-297, 2001.
36. P. J. S. Smith, P. G. Haydon, A. Hengstenberg, and S.-K. Jung, "Analysis of cellular boundary layers: application of electrochemical sensors," Electrochim. Acta, vol. 47, pp. 283-292, 2001.
37. Instructions for use: 501 Mini carbon dioxide electrode, Diamond General Development Corp. (Sept. 2, 2003). http://www.diamondgeneral.com/pdf/manuals/ 501.pdf [Online]
38. 2 gas sensors," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 59, pp. 235-241, 1999.
39. 2 sensor based on dissociation of copper complexes," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 93, pp. 197-204, 2003.
40. Ion-specific microelectrodes, Diamond General Development Corp. (Sept. 2, 2003). http://www.diamondgeneral.com/pdf/manuals/ism.pdf [Online]
41. V. Tvarozek, A. Ottova-Leitmannova, I. Novotny, V. Rehacek, F. Mika, and H. T. Tien, "Thin-film microprobe with bilayer lipid membrane for advanced pH-meter," in Proc. 21st Int. Conf. Microelectronics, Nis, Yugoslavia, Sept. 14-17, 1997.
42. R. K. Meruva and M. E. Meyerhoff, "Catheter-type sensor for potentio-metric monitoring of oxygen, pH and carbon dioxide," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 13, pp. 201-212, 1998.
43. Y. Yang, S. F. Zhang, M. A. Kingston, G. Jones, G. Wright, and S. A. Spencer, "Glucose sensor with improved haemocompatibility," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 15, pp. 221-227, 2000.
44. Y. Ito, S. Yamazaki, K. Kano, and T. Ikeda, "Escherichia coli and its application in a mediated amperometric glucose sensor," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 17, pp. 993-998, 2002.
45. 3 sol-gel derived amperometric biosensor for glucose," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 392, pp. 135-141, 1999.
46. S. H. Choi, S. D. Lee, J. H. Shin, J. Ha, H. Nam, and G. S. Cha, "Amperometric biosensors employing an insoluble oxidant as an interference-removing agent," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 461, pp. 251-260, 2002.
47. T. Matsumoto, M. Furusawa, H. Fujiwara, Y. Matsumoto, and N. Ito, "A micro-planar amperometric glucose sensor unsusceptible to interference species," in Proc. Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors Actuators, Chicago, IL, June 16-19, 1997, pp. 903-906.
48. J. Katrlik, R. Brandsteter, J. Svorc, M. Rosenberg, and S. Miertus, "Mediator type of glucose microbial biosensor based on Apsergillus niger," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 356, pp. 217-224, 1997.
49. C. Podaru, C. Bostan, C. Malide, O. Neagoe, and M. Simion, "An amperometric glucose biosensor," in Proc. Int. Semiconductor Conf., Sinaia, Romania. Oct. 9-12, 1996, pp. 101-104.
50. T. Tatsuma, K. I. Sait, and N. Oyama, "Enzyme electrodes mediated by a thermoshrinking redox polymer," Anal. Chem., vol. 66, pp. 1002-1006, 1994.
51. P. D. Hale, L. I. Boguslavsky, T. Inagaki, H. I. Karan, H. S. Lee, T. A. Skotheim, and Y. Okamoto, "Amperometric glucose biosensors based on redox polymer-mediated electron transfer," Anal. Chem., vol. 63, pp. 677-682, 1991.
52. T. Tatsuma, K. I. Saito, and N. Oyama, "Enzyme electrodes mediated by a thermoshrinking redox polymer," Anal. Chem., vol. 66, pp. 1002-1006, 1994.
53. P. D. Hale, H. L. Lan, L. I. Boguslavsky, H. I. Karan, Y. Okamoto, and T. A. Skotheim, "Amperometric glucose sensors based on ferrocene-modified poly(ethylene oxide) and glucose oxidase," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 251, pp. 121-128, 1991.
54. N. C. Foulds and C. R. Lowe, "Immobilization of glucose oxidase in ferrocene-modified pyrrole polymers," Anal. Chem., vol. 60, pp. 2473-2478, 1988.
55. T. Kaku, H. I. Karan, and Y. Okamoto, "Amperometric glucose sensors based on immobilized glucose oxidase-polyquinone system," Anal. Chem. vol. 66, pp. 1231-1235, 1994.
56. S. J. Dong, B. X. Wang, and B. F. Liu, "Amperometric glucose sensor with ferrocene as an electron-transfer mediator," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 7, pp. 215-222, 1992.
57. Z. Sun and H. Tachikawa, "Enzyme-based bilayer conducting polymer electrodes consisting of polymetallophthalocyanines and polypyrrole-glucose oxidase thin films," Anal. Chem., vol. 64, pp. 1112-1117, 1992.
58. M. Pravda, C. M. Jungar, E. I. Iwuoha, M. R. Smyth, K. Vytras, and A. Ivaska, "Evaluation of amperometric glucose biosensors based on co-immobilization of glucose oxidase with an osmium redox polymer in electrochemically generated polyphenol films," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 304, pp. 127-138, 1995.
59. K. Habermuller. M. Mosbach, and W. Schuhmann, "Electron-transfer mechanisms in amperometric biosensors," Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., vol. 366, pp. 560-568, 2000.
60. V. Tvarozek, A. Ottova-Leitmannova, I. Novotny, V. Rehacek, F. Mika, and H. T. Tien, "Thin-film microprobe with bilayer lipid membrane for advanced pH-meter," in Proc. 21st Int. Conf. Microelectronics, Nis, Yugoslavia, Sept. 14-17. 1997.
61. R. K. Meruva and M. E. Meyerhoff, "Catheter-type sensor for potentio-metric monitoring of oxygen, pH and carbon dioxide," Biosens. Bioelectron.,vol. 13, pp. 201-212, 1998.
62. T. Hermes, M. Buhner, S. Bucher, C. Sundermeier, C. Dumschat, M. Borchardt, K. Cammann, and M. Knoll, "An amperometric microsensor array with 1024 individually addressable elements for two-dimensional concentration mapping," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 21, pp. 33-37, 1994.
63. R. M. Wightman, L. J. May, J. Baur, D. Leszczyszyn, and E. Kristensen, "Microelectrodes to probe spatially heterogeneous concentrations," in Chemical Sensors and Microinstrumentation, R. W. Murray, Ed. Washington, DC: Amer. Chem. Soc., 1989, eh. 8.
64. C. Zoski. "Ultramicroelectrodes: design, fabrication, and characterization," Electroanalysis, vol. 14, pp. 1041-1051, 2002.
65. S.-K. Jung, W. Oorski, C. A. Aspinwall, L. M. Kauri, and R. T. Kennedy, "Oxygen microsensor and its application to single cells and mouse pancreatic islets," Anal. Chem., vol. 71, pp. 3642-3649. 1999.
66. S. C. Land, D. M. Porterfield, R. H. Sanger, and P. J. S. Smith, "The self-referencing oxygen-selective microelectrode: detection of transmembrane oxygen flux from single cells." J. Exp. Biol., vol. 202, pp. 211-218, 1999.
67. T. Kaya, Y.-S. Torisawa, D. Oyamatsu. M. Nishizawa, and T. Matsue, "Monitoring the cellular activity of a cultured single cell by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). A comparison with fluorescence viability monitoring," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 18, pp. 1379-1383, 2003.
68. S. Kasai, Y. Hirano, N. Motochi, H. Shiku, M. Nishizawa, and T. Matsue, "Simultaneous detection of uric acid and glucose on a dual-enzyme chip using scanning electrochemical microscopy/scanning chemiluminescence microscopy," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 458, pp. 263-270, 2002.
69. P. Bergveld, "Development of an ion-sensitive solid-state device for neurophysical measurements, short communication," IEEE Trans Biomed. Eng., vol. 17, pp. 70-71, Jan. 1970.
70. C. Bartic, B. Palan, A. Campitelli, and G. Borghs, "Monitoring pH with organic-based field-effect transistors," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 83, pp. 115-122, 2002.
71. H. Voigt, F. Schitthelm, T. Lange, T. Kullick, and R. Ferretti, "Diamond-like carbon-gate pH-ISFET," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 44, pp. 441-445, 1997.
72. M. Skowronska-Ptasinska, P. D. van der Wal, A. van der Berg, P. Bergveld, E. J. R. Sudholter, and D. N. Reinhoudt, "Reference field effect transistors based on chemically modified ISFETs," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 230, pp. 67-73, 1990.
73. K. Eine, S. Kjelstrup, K. Nagy, and K. Syverud, "Toward a solid state reference electrode," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 44, pp. 381-388, 1997.
74. T. Matsu and H. Nakajima, "Characteristics of reference electrodes using a polymer gate ISFET," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 5, pp. 293-305, 1984.
75. M. Skowronska-Ptasinska, R. D. van der Wal, A. van den Berg, P. Bergveld, E. J. R. Sudholter, and D. N. Reinhoudt, "Reference field effect transistors based on chemically modified ISFETs," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 230, pp. 67-73, 1990.
76. M.-N. Niu, X.-F. Ding, and Q.-Y. Tong. "Effect of two types of surface sites on the characteristics of Si3N4-gate pH-ISFETs," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 37. pp. 13-17, 1996.
77. J. Bausells, J. Carrabina, A. Errachid, and A. Merlos, "Ion-sensitive field-effect transistors fabricated in a commercial CMOS technology," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 1999, pp. 56-62.
78. Y.-L. Chin, J.-C. Chou, T.-P. Sun, W.-Y. Chung, and S.-K. Hsiung, "A novel pH sensitive ISFET with on chip temperature sensing using CMOS standard process," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 76, pp. 582-593, 2001.
79. L. Bousse, J. Shott, and J. D. Meindl, "A process for the combined fabrication of ion sensors and CMOS circuits," IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 9, pp. 44-47, Jan. 1988.
80. B. Palan, F. V. Santos, J. M. Karam, B. Courtois, and M. Husak, "New ISFET sensor interface circuit for biomedical applications," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 57, pp. 63-68, 1999.
81. C. Cane, I. Gracia, A. Merlos, M. Lozano, E. Lora-Tamayo, and J. Esteve, "Compatibility of ISFET and CMOS technologies for smart sensors," in Proc. Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, San Francisco, CA, June 24-27, 1991. pp. 225-228.
82. C.-W. Pan, J.-C. Chou, I.-K. Kao, T.-P. Sun, and S.-K. Hsiung, "Using polypyrrole as the contrast pH detector to fabricate n whole solid-state pH sensing device," IEEE Sensors J., vol. 3, pp. 164-170, Apr. 2003.
83. 2, and pH," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 13, pp. 340-344, 1993.
84. C.-S. Kim, D.-H. Kwon, and B.-K. Sohn, "A new pH-ISFET based dissolved oxygen sensor," in Proc. 8th Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors Actuators, Stockholm, Sweden, June 25-29, 1995.
85. 3 mixture film," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 87, pp. 222-225, 2002.
86. J. Hendrikse, W. Olthuis, and P. Bergveld, "The EMOSFET as an oxygen sensor: constant current potentiometry," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 59, pp. 35-41, 1999.
87. W. Gumbrecht, M. J. Stanzel, and G. Porro, "Fast ISFET-based pCO2 sensor," in Proc. 8th Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors Actuators, Stock-holm, Sweden, June 25-29, 1995, pp. 921-924.
88. Y. Hanazato, K.-I. Inatomi, M. Nakako, S. Shiono, and M. Maeda, "Glucose-sensitive field-effect transistor with membrane containing co-immobilized gluconolactonase and glucose oxidase," Anal, Chim. Acta, vol. 212, pp. 49-59, 1988.
89. A. Saito, N. Ito, J. Kumura, and T. Kuriyama, "An ISFET glucose sensor with a silicone rubber membrane for undiluted serum monitoring," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 20, pp. 125-129, 1994.
90. 3 film," in Proc. Int. Conf. Solid-State Sensors Actuators, San Francisco, CA. June 24-27, 1991. pp. 78-81.
91. Y. Miyahara, T. Moriizumi, and K. Ichimura, "Integrated enzyme FETs for simultaneous detections of urea and glucose," Sens. Actuators, vol. 7, pp. 1-10, 1985.
92. W. H. Baumann, M. Lehmann, A. Schwinde, R. Ehret, M. Brischwein, and B. Wolf, "Microelectronic sensor system for microphysiological application on living cells," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 55, pp. 77-89, 1999.
93. A. Fanigliulo, P. Accossato, M. Adami, M. Lanzi, S. Martinoia, S. Paddeu, M. T. Parodi, A. Rossi, M. Sartore, M. Grattarola, and C. Nicolini, "Comparison between a LAPS and an FET-based sensor for cell-metabolism detection," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 32, pp. 41-48, 1996.
94. E. Lauwers, J. Suls, W. Gumbrecht, D. Maes, G. Gielen, and W. Sansen, "A CMOS multiparameter biochemical microsensor with temperature control and signal interfacing," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 36, pp. 2030-2038, Dec. 2001.
95. H. M. McConnell, J. Owicki, J. W. Parce, D. L. Miller, G. T. Baxter, H. G. Wada, and S. Pitchford, "The cytosensor microphysiometer: biological applications of silicon technology," Science, vol. 257, pp. 1906-1912, 1992.
96. M. Nakao, S. Inoue, R. Oishi, T. Yoshinobu, and H. Iwasaki, "Observation of microorganism colonies using a scanning-laser-beam pH-sensing microscope," J. Perm. Bioeng., vol. 79, pp. 163-166, 1995.
97. T. Yoshinobu, N. Oba, H. Tanaka, and H. Iwasaki, "High-speed and high-precision chemical-imaging sensor," Sens. Actuators A, vol. 51, pp. 231-235, 1996.
98. M. Nakao, S. Inoue, T. Yoshinobu, and H. Iwasaki, "High-resolution pH imaging sensor for microscopic observation of microorganisms," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 34, pp. 234-239, 1996.
99. T. Yoshinobu, H. Ecken, A. B. M. Ismail, H. Iwasaki, and H. Luth, "Chemical imaging sensor and its application to biological systems," Electrochim. Acta, vol. 47, pp. 259-263, 2001.
100. L. Bousse, R. J. McReynolds, G. Kirk, T. Dawes, P. Lam, W. R. Bemiss, and J. W. Parce, "Micromachined multichannel systems for the measurement of cellular metabolism," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 20, pp. 145-150, 1994.
101. B. Stein, M. George, H. E. Gaub, J. C. Behrends, and W. J. Parak, "Spatially resolved monitoring of cellular metabolic activity with a semiconductor-based biosensor," Biosens. Bioelectron, vol. 18, pp. 31-41, 2003.
102. Z. Qintao, W. Ping, W. J. Parak, M. George, and G. Zhang, "A novel design of multi-light LAPS based on digital compensation of frequency domain," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 73, pp. 152-156, 2001.
103. Y. G. Mourzina, Y. E. Ermolenko, T. Yoshinobu, Y. Vlasov, H. Iwasaki, and M. J. Schoning, "Anion-selective light-addressable potentiometric sensors (LAPS) for tie determination of nitrate and sulphate ions," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 91, pp. 32-38, 2003.
104. A. Seki, S.-I. Ikeda, I. Kubo, and I. Karube, "Biosensors based on light-addressable potentiometric sensors for urea, penicillin and glucose," Anal. Chim. Acta, vol. 373, pp. 9-13, 1998.
105. Y. Ito, K. Morimoto, and Y. Tsunoda, "Light-addressable potentiometric (LAP) gas sensor," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 13-14, pp. 348-350, 1993.
106. R. M. White, "Acoustic sensors for physical, chemical and biochemical applications," in Proc. IEEE Int. Freq. Control Symp., Pasadena, CA, May 27-29, 1998, pp. 587-594.
107. T. Nomura, A. Saitoh, and Y. Horikoshi, "Measurement of acoustic properties of liquid using liquid flow SH-SAW sensor system," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 76, pp. 69-73, 2001.
108. F. Hook, M. Rodahl, C. Keller, K. Glasmaster, C. Fredriksson, P. Dahiqvist, and B. Kasemo, "The dissipative QCM-D technique: interfacial phenomena and sensor applications for proteins, biomembranes, living cells and polymers," in Proc. IEEE Joint Meeting. Eur. Frequency Time Forum and IEEE Int. Frequency Control Symp., Besancon, France, Apr. 13-16, 1999, pp. 966-972.
109. J. Auge, P. Hauptmann, J. Hartmann, S. Rosler, and R. Lucklum, "New design for QCM sensors in liquids," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 24, pp. 43-48, 1995.
110. M. J. Vellekoop, "Acoustic wave sensors and their technology," Ultrason., vol. 36, no. 1-5, pp. 7-14, Feb. 1998.
111. R. Gomez, R. Bashir, and A. K. Bhunia, "Microscale electronic detection of bacterial metabolism," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 86, pp. 198-208, 2002.
112. 2 sensor," Sens. Actuators B, vol. 91, pp. 378-382, 2003.
113. M. J. Muehlbauer, E. J. Guilbeau, B. C. Towe, and T. A. Brandon, "Thermoelectric enzyme sensor for measuring blood glucose," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 5, pp. 1-12, 1990.
114. 2 electrode," Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., vol. 50, pp. 39-41, 1974.
115. National Diabetes Statistics, NIH. (Sept. 2, 2003). http://dia-betes. niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/statistics/index.htm [Online]
116. R. T. Kennedy, L. M. Kauri, G. M. Dahlgren, and S.-K. Jung, "Metabolic oscillations in beta-cells," Diabetes, vol. 51, pp. S152-S161, 2002.
117. S.-K. Jung, W. Gorski, G. A. Aspinwall, L. M. Kauri, and R. T. Kennedy, "Oxygen microsensor and its application to single cells and mouse pancreatic islets," Anal. Chem., vol. 71, pp. 3642-3649, 1999.
118. Q. Zhang, P. Wang, J. Li, and X. Gao, "Diagnosis of diabetes by image detection of breath using gas-sensitive LAPS," Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 15, pp. 249-256, 2000.
119. D. L. Keefe, "Aging and infertility in women," Med. Health, vol. 80, pp. 403-405, 1997.
120. N. R. Sims, "Energy metabolism, oxidative stress and neuronal degeneration in Alzheimer's disease," Neurvdegeneration, vol. 5, pp. 435-440, 1996.
121. Y.-S. Torisawa, T. Kaya, Y. Takii, D. Oyamatus, M. Nishirawa, and T. Matsue, "Scanning electrochemical microscopy-based drug sensitivity test for a cell culture integrated in silicon microstructures," Anal. Chem., vol. 75, pp. 2154-2158, 2003.
122. D. E. Woolley, L. C. Tetlow, D. J. Adlam, D. Gearey, R. D. Eden, T. H. Ward, and T. D. Allen, "Electrochemical monitoring of anticancer compounds on the human ovarian carcinoma cell line A2780 and its adriamycin- and cisplatin-resistant variants," Exp. Cell Res., vol. 273, pp. 65-72, 2002.
123. B. Liu, S. A. Rotenberg, and M. V. Mirkin, "Scanning electrochemical microscopy of living cells: different redox activities of nonmetastatic and metastatic human breast cells," in PNAS, vol. 97, 2000, pp. 9855-9860.
124. B. Liu, W. Cheng, S. A. Rotenberg, and M. V. Mirkin, "Scanning electrochemical microscopy of living cells part 2. Imaging redox and acid/basic reactivities," J. Electroanal. Chem., vol. 500, pp. 590-597, 2001.
125. W.Feng, S.A. Rotenberg, and M. V. Mirkin,"Scanning electrochemical microscopy of living cells. 5. Imaging of fields of normal and metastatic human breast cells," Anal. Chem., vol. 75, pp. 4148-4154, 2003.
126. C. Cai, B. Liu, and M. V. Mirkin, "Scanning electrochemical microscopy of living cells. 3. Rhodobactersphaeroides," Anal. Chem., vol. 74, pp. 114-119, 2002.
127. B.D.Bath, E.R. Scott, J. B. Phipps, and H. S. White,"Scanning electrochemical microscopy of iontophoretic transport in hairless mouse skin. Analysis of the relative contributions of diffusion, migration, and electroosmosis to transport in hair follicles," J. Pharm. Sci., vol. 89, pp. 1537-1549, 2000.
128. E. R. Scott and H. S. White, "Iontophoretic transport through porous membranes using scanning electrochemical microscopy: application to in vitro studies of ion fluxes through skin," Anal. Chem., vol. 65, pp. 1537-1545, 1993.
129. L. Csonge, D. Bravo, H. Newman-Gage, T. Rigley, E. U. Conrad, A. Bakay, D. M. Strong, and S. Pellet, "Banking of osteochondral allografts, part II. Preservation of chondrocyte viability during long-term storage," Cell and Tissue Banking, vol. 3, pp. 161-168, 2002.
130. D. R. Ambruso, D. Mitchell, S. Karakoleva, S. Lavery, J. Otis, T. Danielson, and J. Mladenovic, "Comparison of room temperature (RT) or 4°C storage of cord blood before processing: recovery after freezing," in 44th Annu. Meeting Amer. Soc. Hematology, Philadelphia, PA, Dec., 6-10 2002.
131. P. D. Ribotta, A. E. Leon, and M. C. Anon, "Effects of yeast freezing in frozen dough," Cereal Chem., vol. 80, pp. 454-458, 2003.
132. S. L. Holliday and L. R. Beuchat, "Viability of Salmonella, Escherichia colt 0157:H7, and Lisleria monocytogenes in yellow fat spreads as affected by storage temperature," J. Food Protection, vol. 66, pp. 549-558, 2003.
133. N. Mansour, F. Lahnsteiner, and B. Berger, "Metabolism of intratesticular spermatozoa of a tropical teleost fish (Clarias gariepinus)," Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B: Biochem. Mol. Biol, vol. 135B, pp. 285-296, 2003.
134. C. E. Helmstetter, M. Thornton, and N. B. Grover, "Cell-cycle research with synchronous cultures: an evaluation," Biochimie, vol. 83, pp. 83-89, 2001.
135. S. Umehara, Y. Wakamoto, I. Inoue, and K. Yasuda, "On-chip single-cell microcultivation assay for monitoring environmental effects on isolated cells," Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., vol. 305, pp. 534-540, 1993.
136. P. J. S. Smith, P. G. Haydon, A. Hengstenberg, and S.-K. Jung, "Analysis of cellular boundary layers: application of electrochemical microsensors," Electrochim, Acta, vol. 47, pp. 283-292, 2001.
137. H. Shiku, T. Shiraishi, H. Ohya, T. Matsue, H. Abe, H. Hoshi, and M. Kobayashi, "Oxygen consumption of single bovine embryos probed by scanning electrochemical microscopy," Anal. Chem., vol. 73, pp. 3751-3758, 2001.