Democracy and development: Is there institutional incompatibility?

Democratization

Volumn 12, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 686-703

  Leftwich, Adrian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Economic development; Failed states; Informal institutions; New institutionalism

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; FOREIGN POLICY; POST-COLD WAR;

EID: 31344449569     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: 1743890X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510340500322173     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. For details see World Bank, 'Millennium Development Goals', at .
2. Nicolas van de Walle, African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
3. Dani Rodrik (ed.), In Search of Prosperity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).
4. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), SIPRI Yearbook 2004 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), ch.3 (available at ).
5. Department for International Development (DFID), Why We Need to Work More Effectively in Fragile States (London: DFID, 2005), p.5. States which in recent times have fallen into the collapsed and failed state categories include Somalia, Sudan, Afghanistan, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone and Liberia. Failing or fragile states is a larger category and includes states ranging from Haiti to Tajikistan, and Chad to Burma.
6. Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press, 2003)
7. Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), When States Fail (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004)
8. Robert H. Bates 'Political Insecurity and State Failure in Contemporary Africa', Working Paper 115, Center for International Development, Harvard University, January 2005 (available at www.cid.harvard.edu/ cidwp/115.htm).
9. The first is the report of the National Intelligence Council, Global Trends 2015 (Washington, DC: National Intelligence Council, 2000) and the second is the report of the Prime Minister's Strategy Unit, of the Cabinet Office, Investing in Prevention. An International Strategy to Manage Risks of Instability and Improve Crisis Response (London: The Strategy Unit, 2005).
10. But see also DFID (note 5).
11. See also 'From Chaos, Order', The Economist, 3 March 2005.
12. DFID, The Causes of Conflict in Africa (London: DFID, 2001), p.20.
13. G. Crawford, 'Foreign Aid and Political Conditionality: Issues of Effectiveness and Consistency', Democratization, Vol.4, No.3 (1997), pp.69-108
14. O. Stokke, 'Aid and Political Conditionality: Core Issues and State of the Art', in O. Stokke (ed.), Aid and Political Conditionality (London: Frank Cass, 1996), pp.1-87
15. Larry Diamond, Developing Democracy: Towards Consolidation (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999)
16. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
17. Nick Donovan, M. Smart, Magui Moreno-Torres, Jan Ole Kiso' and George Zachariah, 'Countries at Risk of Instability: Risk Factors and Dynamics of Instability', Prime Minister's Strategy Unit, Background Paper (London: The Cabinet Office, 2005), p.3.
18. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Striving For Good Governance in Africa (Addis Ababa: UNECA, 2004), p.3.
19. Michael W. Doyle, 'Kant, Liberal Legacies and Foreign Affairs', Philosophy and Public Affairs, Vol.12, No.3 (1983), pp.205-35.
20. See , and World Bank, World Bank Group Work in Low Income Countries Under Stress: A Task Force Report (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2002)
21. DFID (note 5).
22. See, for instance, Daniel Kaufmann, Aart Kraay and Pablo Zoifo-Lobató, 'Governance Matters', Policy Research Working Paper 2196 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1999)
23. and see the particularly interesting paper by Joel S. Hellman, Geraint Jones and Daniel Kaufmann, 'Seize the State, Seize the Day': State Capture, Corruption and Influence in Transition, Policy Research Working Paper 2444 (Washington, DC: World Bank Institute, 2000)
24. Philip Keefer, Democratization and Clientelism: Why Are Young Democracies Badly Governed? (Washington, DC: Development Research Group, The World Bank, 2003)
25. Philip Keefer, 'What does Political Economy tell us about Economic Development - and Vice Versa?', Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.7 (2004), pp.247-72.
26. Agreement Establishing the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 1990, Article 1. The clear political goals of the EBRD indicate how far Western governments had moved in the direction of recognizing and pushing for political aspects of development.
27. Hellman, Jones and Kaufmann (note 14).
28. Adam Przeworski, Michael E. Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub and Fernando Limongi, Democracy and Development. Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.269-78.
29. James March and Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions. The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1989), pp.21-6.
30. See, especially, Douglass C. North, 'Institutions', Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.5, No.1 (1991), pp.97-112
31. see also Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and a host of papers, particularly North's 'Institutions and Economic Growth: An Historical Introduction', World Development, Vol, 17. No.9 (1989), pp.1319-32.
32. Geoffrey M. Hodgson, How Economics Forgot History (London: Routledge, 2001).
33. North, Institutions, Institutional Change (note 18), p.3.
34. The World Bank, Reforming Public Institutions and Strengthening Governance (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2000), pp.xii and 2.
35. John Kingdom, Government and Politics in Britain, 3rd edn. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003), pp.264-76.
36. Dani Rodrik, 'Growth Strategies', unpublished manuscript.
37. Ibid. p.5.
38. But see also Christopher Clague (ed.), Institutions and Economic Development. Growth and Governance in Less-Developed and Post-Socialist Countries (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997). Both the United Kingdom's DFID and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), for instance, are currently funding significant research into how institutions are established and changed.
39. For an account of this 'old institutionalism' see B. Guy Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science (London: Continuum, 1999).
40. For a more detailed account of the history of political science in the United States, see David M. Ricci, The Tragedy of Political Science (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984) and for a rather bleak view of the discipline in Britain,
41. see Jack Hayward, 'British Approaches to Politics: The Dawn of a Self-Deprecating Discipline', in Jack Hayward, Brian Barry and Archie Brown (eds.), The British Study of Politics in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
42. Michael Oakeshott, 'The Study of Politics in a University', in Michael Oakeshott, Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (London: Methuen, 1967), p.323.
43. Goran Hyden, Julius Court and Kenneth Mease, Making Sense of Governance. Empirical Evidence from Sixteen Developing Countries (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner, 2004).
44. After the writings on state and bureaucracy of the famous German sociologist Max Weber. See Robert M. Price, Society and Bureaucracy in Contemporary Ghana (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975).
45. John Harriss, Depoliticizing Development. The World Bank and Social Capital (London: Anthem Press, 2002).
46. Robert D. Putnam and Kristin A. Goss, 'Introduction', in Robert D. Putnam (ed.), Democracies in Flux. The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p.6.
47. David Halpern, Social Capital (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004).
48. Gordon White, 'Corruption and the Transition from Socialism in China', Journal of Law and Society, Vol.23, No.1 (1966), pp.149-69.
49. Ibid. p.159
50. Hongying Wang, 'Informal Institutions and Foreign Investment in China', The Pacific Review, Vol.13, No.4 (2000), pp 525-56.
51. Two brilliant analyses of this phenomenon and its historical provenance may be found in Peter Ekeh, 'Colonialism and the Two Publics', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.17, No.1 (1975), pp.91-112
52. and Bruce Berman, 'Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism', African Affairs, Vol.97, No.388 (1998), pp.243-61.
53. Joel Smith and Lloyd D. Musolf (eds.), Legislatures in Development: Dynamics of Change in New and Old States (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1979).
54. Peter Larmour, 'Democracy without Development in the South Pacific', in Adrian Leftwich (ed.), Democracy and Development (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), p.230.
55. No better example of this can be offered than Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 990-1992 (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992).
56. A fine recent contribution to this is Mick Moore, 'Revenues, State Formation and the Quality of Governance in Developing Countries', International Political Science Review, Vol.25, No.3 (2004), pp.297-319.
57. But for a different perspective on the question, see also Margaret Levi, Of Rule and Revenue (London: University of California Press, 1989).
58. Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking Away The Ladder (London: Anthem Press, 2002).
59. Adrian Leftwich, 'Theorising the State', in Peter Burnell and Vicky Randall (eds.), Politics in the Developing World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp.139-54. 'Rich Country. Strong Army' was the Meiji formulation for this in Japan after 1870.
60. Tilly (note 37).
61. Adrian Leftwich, States of Development (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000), chs 2 and 3.
62. Joseph Stiglitz, 'Towards a New Paradigm of Development', in John H. Dunning, Making Globalization Good (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp.77ff.
63. Amartya Sen, Development As Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
64. World Bank, World Development Report 2002 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), Table 2, pp.234-5.
65. Dudley Seers, 'The Meaning of Development', International Development Review, Vol.11, No.4 (1969), pp.2-6.
66. Barbara Harriss-White, India Working. Essays in Economy and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p.1.
67. R.B.Lee and I. de Vore (eds.), Man the Hunter (Chicago: Aldine, 1968)
68. Lorna Marshall, The !Kung of Nyae Nyae (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).
69. Richard Lee observes of the !Kung San of the Kalahari that the '!Kung are a fiercely egalitarian people, and they have evolved a series of important cultural practices to maintain this equality, first by cutting down to size the arrogant and the boastful, and second by helping those down on their luck to get back in the game'. R.B. Lee, The !Kung San (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p.244.
70. Robert Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1981), p.121
71. Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)
72. Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p.23
73. Paul Collier and Jan Willem Gunning, 'Explaining African Economic Performance', Journal of Economic Literature, Vol.37 (March 1999), pp.64-111.
74. Michael Lipton, 'Towards a Theory of Land Reform', in David Lehman (ed.), Peasants, Landlords and Governments (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1974), pp.269-315.
75. Solon Barraclough, Land Reform in Developing Countries: The Role of the State and Other Actors (Geneva: UNRISD, 1999).
76. B.J. Kerkvliet, 'Land Reform in the Philippines since the Marcos Coup', Pacific Affairs, Vol.47, No.3 (1974), pp.286-304.
77. Ronald J.Herring, 'Zulfikar Ali Bhuto and the "Eradication of Feudalism" in Pakistan', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.21, No.4 (1979), pp 519-57.
78. Stuart Corbridge and John Harriss, Reinventing India (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000), pp.62-6
79. W.D. Thwala, 'Land and Agrarian Reform in South Africa' (Johannesburg: National Land Committee, 2003) (available at ).
80. Ellen Kay Trimberger, Revolution from Above (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1978)
81. and see also K M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1959), pp.153-62.
82. Çaǧlar Keyder, State and Class in Turkey. A Study in Capitalist Development (London: Verso, 1978)
83. Fred Riggs, Thailand: The Modernization of a Bureaucratic Polity (Honolulu, HI: East-West Center Press, 1966).
84. Atul Kohli, 'Where Do High Growth Political Economies Come From? The Japanese Lineage of Korea's "Developmental State"', World Development, Vol.22, No.9 (1994), pp.1269-94
85. Jung-en Woo, The Race To the Swift (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991)
86. and Peter B. Evans,'Transferable Lessons? Re-examining the Institutional Pre-Requisites of East Asian Economic Policies', Journal of Development Studies, Vol.34, No.6 (1998), pp.66-86
87. Hyuk-Rae Kim, 'Korea's Economic Governance in Transition: Governance Crisis and the Future of Korea Capitalism', Korea Observer, Vol.31, No.4 (2000), pp.553-77.
88. Ian Taylor, 'Work for Development: Botswana as a Developmental State', in Graham Harrison (ed.), Global Encounters. International Political Economy, Development and Global Governance (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004), pp.41-62.
89. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968).
90. I have elaborated this point at some length in Adrian Leftwich, 'Forms of the Democratic Developmental State: Democratic Practices and Development Capacity', in Mark Robinson and Gordon White (eds.), The Democratic Developmental State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp.52-83.
91. Ronald J. Herring, 'Embedded Particularism: India's Failed Developmental State', in Meredith Woo-Cumings (ed.), The Developmental State (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), pp.306-34.
92. Corbridge and Harriss (note 54), p.173.
93. David Collier and Steven Levitsky, 'Democracy With Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research', World Politics, Vol.49, No.3 (1997), pp.430-51.
94. Arend Lijphart, Patterns of Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999).
95. Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2004 (Washington, DC: Freedom House, 2004) (available at ).
96. Adam Przeworski et al., Sustainable Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p.110
97. Larry Diamond, Developing Democracy. Toward Consolidation (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), pp.12-13.
98. I have discussed these forms of legitimacy in more detail in 'A Contradiction in the Politics of Economics', New Political Economy, Vol.7, No.2 (2002), pp.269-73.
99. Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in G. O'Donnell, et al. (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p.58.
100. Bernard Crick, 'Politics as a Form of Rule: Politics, Citizenship and Democracy', in Adrian Leftwich (ed.), What is Politics? (Cambridge, Polity Press, 2004), p.67.
101. S.P. Huntington, 'How Countries Democratize', Political Science Quarterly, Vol.106, No.4 (1991/2), pp.609-15.
102. Jennifer McCoy, 'The State and the Democratic Compromise in Venezuela', Journal of Developing Societies, Vol.4, No.2 (1988), pp.85-133.
103. Edward Webster and Glenn Adler, 'Towards a Class Compromise in South Africa's "Double Transition": Bargained Liberalization and the Consolidation of Democracy', Politics and Society, Vol.27, No.3 (1999), pp.347-85.
104. Detail is elaborated in Patrick Bond, Elite Transition: From Apartheid to Neo-Liberalism in South Africa (London: Pluto Press, 2000).
105. Mushtaq Husain Khan 'Fundamental Tensions in the Democratic Compromise', New Political Economy, Vol.7, No.2 (2002), pp.275-7.
106. Economic Commission for Africa, Striving For Good Governance in Africa (Addis Ababa: Economic Commission For Africa, 2005), p.5.
107. Alexander Their and Jarat Chopra, 'The Road Ahead: Political and Institutional Reconstruction in Afghanistan', Third World Quarterly, Vol.23, No.5 (2002), p.906 and passim.
108. Robert H.Bates, Prosperity and Violence. The Political Economy of Development (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), p.69.
109. Rotberg, State Failure (note 6).
110. David Apter, The Politics of Modernization (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1965).