Democracy with adjectives: Conceptual innovation in comparative research

World Politics

Volumn 49, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 430-451

  Collier, David ^a   Levitsky, Steven ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001265182     PISSN: 00438871     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/wp.1997.0009     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Giovanni Sartori, "Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics," American Political Science Review 64 (December 1970); and David Collier and James E. Mahon, Jr., "Conceptual 'Stretching' Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis," American Political Science Review 87 (December 1993).
2. Giovanni Sartori, "Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics," American Political Science Review 64 (December 1970); and David Collier and James E. Mahon, Jr., "Conceptual 'Stretching' Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis," American Political Science Review 87 (December 1993).
3. A parallel expression, "democracy without adjectives," appeared in debates in Latin America among observers concerned with the persistence of incomplete and qualified forms of democracy. See, for instance, Enrique Krauze, Por una democracia sin adjetivos (Mexico City: Joaquín Mortiz/Planeta, 1986).
4. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper, 1947); and Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
5. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper, 1947); and Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
6. Along with the qualitative categories that are the focus of this discussion, valuable quantitative indicators have been developed for comparing recent cases of democratization. Ultimately, it will be productive to bring together insights about the strategies of conceptual innovation employed in these alternative approaches. However, an essential prior step, which is our present concern, is to learn more about the conceptual innovations introduced by scholars who employ qualitative categories.
7. We are thus not primarily concerned with the literature on advanced industrial democracies, although this literature is an important point of reference in the studies we are examining. In a few places, we have included recent studies of countries that are not actually part of the current episode of democratization, but whose relatively new democracies are a point of comparison in the studies under review, for example, Colombia. We also include a few references to other historical cases that have been used in recent scholarship as important points of analytic contrast.
8. Sartori (fn. 1), 1039.
9. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (March 1959); and idem, "The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited," American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?" World Politics 49 (October 1996); and Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997).
10. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (March 1959); and idem, "The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited," American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?" World Politics 49 (October 1996); and Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997).
11. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (March 1959); and idem, "The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited," American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?" World Politics 49 (October 1996); and Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997).
12. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (March 1959); and idem, "The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited," American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?" World Politics 49 (October 1996); and Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997).
13. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (March 1959); and idem, "The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited," American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?" World Politics 49 (October 1996); and Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997).
14. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (March 1959); and idem, "The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited," American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?" World Politics 49 (October 1996); and Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997).
15. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (March 1959); and idem, "The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited," American Sociological Review 59 (February 1994); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?" World Politics 49 (October 1996); and Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49 (January 1997).
16. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
17. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
18. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
19. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
20. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
21. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
22. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
23. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
24. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
25. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Summer 1993); Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review 50 (August 1985); Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (Spring 1990); Karen L. Remmer, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization: IMF Standby Programs in Latin America, 1954-1984," Comparative Politics 19 (October 1986); Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman, eds., Debt and Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989); Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., Debating the Democratic Peace: An International Security Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarianism versus Presidentialism," World Politics 46 (October 1993); Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); and Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994).
26. See, for example, Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert W. Jackman, "Democracy, Stability, and Dichotomies," American Sociological Review 54 (August 1989), 613-16; and Russett (fn. 8), 15-16.
27. For an analysis that focuses on some of these same strategies with reference to another social science concept, see David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Method and Analysis (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995). For discussions by linguists and cognitive scientists of the intuitive structure that underlies these strategies, see D. A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), chap. 6; George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), chaps. 2, 6; and John R. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), chaps. 2-3.
28. For an analysis that focuses on some of these same strategies with reference to another social science concept, see David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Method and Analysis (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995). For discussions by linguists and cognitive scientists of the intuitive structure that underlies these strategies, see D. A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), chap. 6; George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), chaps. 2, 6; and John R. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), chaps. 2-3.
29. For an analysis that focuses on some of these same strategies with reference to another social science concept, see David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Method and Analysis (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995). For discussions by linguists and cognitive scientists of the intuitive structure that underlies these strategies, see D. A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), chap. 6; George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), chaps. 2, 6; and John R. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), chaps. 2-3.
30. For an analysis that focuses on some of these same strategies with reference to another social science concept, see David Collier, "Trajectory of a Concept: 'Corporatism' in the Study of Latin American Politics," in Peter H. Smith, ed., Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Method and Analysis (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995). For discussions by linguists and cognitive scientists of the intuitive structure that underlies these strategies, see D. A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), chap. 6; George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), chaps. 2, 6; and John R. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), chaps. 2-3.
31. W. B. Gallie, "Essentially Contested Concepts," Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 56 (London: Harrison and Sons, 1956), 184; emphasis in original.
32. Ibid., quote at 186; see also pp. 178, 189, 190, 193.
33. For discussions of procedural definitions, see Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), chap. 2; Samuel P. Huntington, "The Modest Meaning of Democracy," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1989); Schumpeter (fn.3); and Dahl (fn. 3). On minimal definitions, see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 28; and Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 9. On treating characteristics of the society and economy as a cause or consequence of democracy, see Juan J. Linz, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes," in Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 182; and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990), 2.
34. For discussions of procedural definitions, see Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), chap. 2; Samuel P. Huntington, "The Modest Meaning of Democracy," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1989); Schumpeter (fn.3); and Dahl (fn. 3). On minimal definitions, see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 28; and Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 9. On treating characteristics of the society and economy as a cause or consequence of democracy, see Juan J. Linz, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes," in Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 182; and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990), 2.
35. For discussions of procedural definitions, see Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), chap. 2; Samuel P. Huntington, "The Modest Meaning of Democracy," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1989); Schumpeter (fn.3); and Dahl (fn. 3). On minimal definitions, see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 28; and Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 9. On treating characteristics of the society and economy as a cause or consequence of democracy, see Juan J. Linz, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes," in Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 182; and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990), 2.
36. For discussions of procedural definitions, see Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), chap. 2; Samuel P. Huntington, "The Modest Meaning of Democracy," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1989); Schumpeter (fn.3); and Dahl (fn. 3). On minimal definitions, see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 28; and Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 9. On treating characteristics of the society and economy as a cause or consequence of democracy, see Juan J. Linz, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes," in Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 182; and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990), 2.
37. For discussions of procedural definitions, see Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), chap. 2; Samuel P. Huntington, "The Modest Meaning of Democracy," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1989); Schumpeter (fn.3); and Dahl (fn. 3). On minimal definitions, see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 28; and Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 9. On treating characteristics of the society and economy as a cause or consequence of democracy, see Juan J. Linz, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes," in Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 182; and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990), 2.
38. For discussions of procedural definitions, see Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), chap. 2; Samuel P. Huntington, "The Modest Meaning of Democracy," in Robert A. Pastor, ed., Democracy in the Americas: Stopping the Pendulum (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1989); Schumpeter (fn.3); and Dahl (fn. 3). On minimal definitions, see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 28; and Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 9. On treating characteristics of the society and economy as a cause or consequence of democracy, see Juan J. Linz, "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes," in Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science, vol. 3 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 182; and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990), 2.
39. O'Donnell and Schmitter (fn. 13), 8 (but see note 33 below); Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, "Preface," in Diamond, Linz, and Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989), xvi; Di Palma (fn. 13), 16. See also Juan J. Linz, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown, and Reequilibration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 5.
40. O'Donnell and Schmitter (fn. 13), 8 (but see note 33 below); Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, "Preface," in Diamond, Linz, and Lipset, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989), xvi; Di Palma (fn. 13), 16. See also Juan J. Linz, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown, and Reequilibration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 5.
41. Sartori (fn. 1), 1040, actually refers to a ladder of "abstraction." However, because the term abstract is often understood in contrast to concrete, this label can be confusing. We therefore find that "ladder of generality" expresses the intended meaning more clearly.
42. Sartori (fn. 1), 1041.
43. We refer to these as classical subtypes because they fit within the "classical" understanding of categorization discussed by such authors as Lakoff (fn. 10), 9 and passim; and Taylor (fn. 10), chap. 2.
44. In referring to the root definition, we do not imply that it is the "correct" definition of the relevant concept (in this case, of democracy). It is simply the definition that, for a particular author, is the point of departure in forming the subtype. We will occasionally use the expression "root concept" to refer to the concept (again, in the present context, democracy) that is the point of departure for the various conceptual innovations analyzed here.
45. Linz and Valenzuela (fn. 8); Stepan and Skach (fn. 8); and Giovanni Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering: An Inquiry into Structures, Incentives, and Outcomes (New York: New York University Press, 1994).
46. Sartori (fn. 1), 1041.
47. See, respectively, Richard Wilson, "Continued Counterinsurgency: Civilian Rule in Guatemala," in Barry Gills, Joel Rocamora, and Richard Wilson, eds., Low Intensity Democracy: Political Power in the New World Order (London: Pluto Press, 1993); and Terry Lynn Karl, "Democracy by Design: The Christian Democratic Party in El Salvador," in Giuseppe Di Palma and Laurence Whitehead, eds., The Central American Impasse (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
48. See, respectively, Richard Wilson, "Continued Counterinsurgency: Civilian Rule in Guatemala," in Barry Gills, Joel Rocamora, and Richard Wilson, eds., Low Intensity Democracy: Political Power in the New World Order (London: Pluto Press, 1993); and Terry Lynn Karl, "Democracy by Design: The Christian Democratic Party in El Salvador," in Giuseppe Di Palma and Laurence Whitehead, eds., The Central American Impasse (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
49. The idea of diminished subtypes builds on the discussion of radial concepts in Collier and Mahon (fn. 1), 850-52. See also Lakoff (fn. 10), chap. 6.
50. Because they are less than complete instances, it might be objected that they are not really "subtypes" of democracy at all. Drawing on a term from cognitive linguistics, one can refer to them as conceptual "blends" that are derived in part from the concept of democracy. However, to avoid referring repeatedly to "subtypes and blends," it seems simpler in the discussion below to call them subtypes. See Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner, "Conceptual Projection and Middle Spaces," Report no. 9401, Department of Cognitive Science (San Diego: University of California, San Diego, 1994).
51. This subtype is understood to have the meaning explained above in the discussion of Figure 1.
52. Regarding illiberal democracy, see Figure 3. Two further points about diminished subtypes should be underscored. First, if scholars fail to identify the root definition of democracy in relation to which they form subtypes, it is difficult to determine whether a given subtype is classical or diminished. Second, the fact that a subtype refers to what might be understood as a "problematic" feature of democracy does not necessarily mean that it is a diminished subtype. For example, O'Donnell's concept of "delegative democracy," which refers to cases with weak horizontal accountability among the branches of government, in fact meets his minimum definition of democracy, given that he does not include horizontal accountability in the definition. See O'Donnell (fn. 8), 56. Hence, in his usage, delegative democracy is a classical subtype. For a discussion of subtypes that refer to "problematic" democracies, see a longer version of the present analysis in David Collier and Steven Levitsky, "Democracy 'with Adjectives': Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research," Working Paper no. 230 (Notre Dame, Ind.: The Kellogg Institute, University of Notre Dame, 1996), 20-26. The above characterization of delegative democracy as a classical subtype should be understood as correcting the assessment of this subtype presented in Collier (fn. 10), 147-48.
53. James M. Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 256-57; Catherine M. Conaghan and Rosario Espinal, "Unlikely Transitions to Uncertain Regimes? Democracy without Compromise in the Dominican Republic and Ecuador," Journal of Latin American Studies 22 (October 1990), 555; Jonathan Hartlyn, "Crisis-Ridden Elections (Again) in the Dominican Republic: Neopatrimonialism, Presidentialism, and Weak Electoral Oversight," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (Winter 1994), 93-96; Terry Lynn Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes of Central America,"Journal of Democracy 6 (Summer 1995); and Francisco Weffort, Qual democracia? (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992), 89-90.
54. James M. Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 256-57; Catherine M. Conaghan and Rosario Espinal, "Unlikely Transitions to Uncertain Regimes? Democracy without Compromise in the Dominican Republic and Ecuador," Journal of Latin American Studies 22 (October 1990), 555; Jonathan Hartlyn, "Crisis-Ridden Elections (Again) in the Dominican Republic: Neopatrimonialism, Presidentialism, and Weak Electoral Oversight," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (Winter 1994), 93-96; Terry Lynn Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes of Central America,"Journal of Democracy 6 (Summer 1995); and Francisco Weffort, Qual democracia? (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992), 89-90.
55. James M. Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 256-57; Catherine M. Conaghan and Rosario Espinal, "Unlikely Transitions to Uncertain Regimes? Democracy without Compromise in the Dominican Republic and Ecuador," Journal of Latin American Studies 22 (October 1990), 555; Jonathan Hartlyn, "Crisis-Ridden Elections (Again) in the Dominican Republic: Neopatrimonialism, Presidentialism, and Weak Electoral Oversight," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (Winter 1994), 93-96; Terry Lynn Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes of Central America,"Journal of Democracy 6 (Summer 1995); and Francisco Weffort, Qual democracia? (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992), 89-90.
56. James M. Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 256-57; Catherine M. Conaghan and Rosario Espinal, "Unlikely Transitions to Uncertain Regimes? Democracy without Compromise in the Dominican Republic and Ecuador," Journal of Latin American Studies 22 (October 1990), 555; Jonathan Hartlyn, "Crisis-Ridden Elections (Again) in the Dominican Republic: Neopatrimonialism, Presidentialism, and Weak Electoral Oversight," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (Winter 1994), 93-96; Terry Lynn Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes of Central America,"Journal of Democracy 6 (Summer 1995); and Francisco Weffort, Qual democracia? (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992), 89-90.
57. James M. Malloy, "The Politics of Transition in Latin America," in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson, eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 256-57; Catherine M. Conaghan and Rosario Espinal, "Unlikely Transitions to Uncertain Regimes? Democracy without Compromise in the Dominican Republic and Ecuador," Journal of Latin American Studies 22 (October 1990), 555; Jonathan Hartlyn, "Crisis-Ridden Elections (Again) in the Dominican Republic: Neopatrimonialism, Presidentialism, and Weak Electoral Oversight," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (Winter 1994), 93-96; Terry Lynn Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes of Central America,"Journal of Democracy 6 (Summer 1995); and Francisco Weffort, Qual democracia? (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1992), 89-90.
58. Bagley, "Colombia: National Front and Economic Development," in Robert Wesson, ed., Politics, Policies, and Economic Development in Latin America (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1984), 125-27.
59. See Giovanni Sartori, "Guidelines for Concept Analysis," in Sartori, ed., Social Science Concepts: A Systematic Analysis (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984), 81; and Irving M. Copi and Carl Cohen, Introduction to Logic, 9th ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 173-75. In Social Science Concepts (p. 42), Sartori also uses this as a verb, as in "to precise" a definition.
60. See Giovanni Sartori, "Guidelines for Concept Analysis," in Sartori, ed., Social Science Concepts: A Systematic Analysis (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984), 81; and Irving M. Copi and Carl Cohen, Introduction to Logic, 9th ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 173-75. In Social Science Concepts (p. 42), Sartori also uses this as a verb, as in "to precise" a definition.
61. See Giovanni Sartori, "Guidelines for Concept Analysis," in Sartori, ed., Social Science Concepts: A Systematic Analysis (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984), 81; and Irving M. Copi and Carl Cohen, Introduction to Logic, 9th ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 173-75. In Social Science Concepts (p. 42), Sartori also uses this as a verb, as in "to precise" a definition.
62. J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), 70.
63. Karl (fn. 13), 2; Valenzuela (fn. 29); and Brian Loveman, "'Protected Democracies' and Military Guardianship: Political Transitions in Latin America, 1979-1993," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (Summer 1994). See also Humberto Rubin, "One Step Away from Democracy" Journal of Democracy 1 (Fall 1990).
64. Karl (fn. 13), 2; Valenzuela (fn. 29); and Brian Loveman, "'Protected Democracies' and Military Guardianship: Political Transitions in Latin America, 1979-1993," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (Summer 1994). See also Humberto Rubin, "One Step Away from Democracy" Journal of Democracy 1 (Fall 1990).
65. Rhoda Rabkin, "The Aylwin Government and 'Tutelary' Democracy: A Concept in Search of a Case?" Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 34 (Winter 1992-93), 165.
66. Francisco Weffort, "New Democracies, Which Democracies?" Working Paper no. 198, Latin American Program (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1992), 18; Weffort (fn. 26), 100-101; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Challenges to Democratization in Brazil," World Policy Journal 5 (1988), 297-98; and idem, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela (fn. 29), 48-49.
67. Francisco Weffort, "New Democracies, Which Democracies?" Working Paper no. 198, Latin American Program (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1992), 18; Weffort (fn. 26), 100-101; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Challenges to Democratization in Brazil," World Policy Journal 5 (1988), 297-98; and idem, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela (fn. 29), 48-49.
68. Francisco Weffort, "New Democracies, Which Democracies?" Working Paper no. 198, Latin American Program (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1992), 18; Weffort (fn. 26), 100-101; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Challenges to Democratization in Brazil," World Policy Journal 5 (1988), 297-98; and idem, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela (fn. 29), 48-49.
69. Authors who have employed horizontal accountability in their definitions include Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, "What Democracy Is . . . and Is Not," Journal of Democracy 2 (Summer 1991), 76, 87; and Alan R. Ball, Modern Politics and Government, 5th ed. (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House, 1994), 45-46. O'Donnell and Schmitter (fn. 13), 8, actually include it in their formal definition, but it appears to play no role in their subsequent analysis.
70. Authors who have employed horizontal accountability in their definitions include Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, "What Democracy Is . . . and Is Not," Journal of Democracy 2 (Summer 1991), 76, 87; and Alan R. Ball, Modern Politics and Government, 5th ed. (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House, 1994), 45-46. O'Donnell and Schmitter (fn. 13), 8, actually include it in their formal definition, but it appears to play no role in their subsequent analysis.
71. On the problem of unsettling the semantic field, see Sartori (fn. 28), 51-54.
72. Jennifer Whiting, personal communication, suggested this term.
73. See Juan J. Linz, "The Future of an Authoritarian Situation or the Institutionalization of an Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Brazil," in Alfred Stepan, ed., Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, Future (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973). Malloy uses "democratic moment" to convey a similar meaning. See Malloy (fn. 26), 236.
74. Guillermo O'Donnell, "On the State, Democratization and Some Conceptual Problems: A Latin American View with Glances at Some Postcommunist Countries," World Development 21, no. 8 (1993), 1359 and passim.
75. See again references in note 10.
76. For a reminder of how important vivid labels can be, one need only look at the impressive evolution of game theory, with its codification of different patterns of political interaction designated by such labels as "prisoners' dilemma," "chicken," "stag hunt," "slippery slope," and "battle of the sexes."
77. Juan J. Linz, "An Authoritarian Regime: Spain," in Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen, eds., Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems: Contributions to Comparative Political Sociology, Transactions of the Westermarck Society, vol. 10 (Helsinki: Academic Bookstore, 1964); Dahl (fn. 3); Guillermo O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Institute of International Studies, Politics of Modernization Series no. 9 (Berkeley: University of California, 1973); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics 36 (January 1974); and Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).
78. Juan J. Linz, "An Authoritarian Regime: Spain," in Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen, eds., Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems: Contributions to Comparative Political Sociology, Transactions of the Westermarck Society, vol. 10 (Helsinki: Academic Bookstore, 1964); Dahl (fn. 3); Guillermo O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Institute of International Studies, Politics of Modernization Series no. 9 (Berkeley: University of California, 1973); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics 36 (January 1974); and Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).
79. Juan J. Linz, "An Authoritarian Regime: Spain," in Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen, eds., Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems: Contributions to Comparative Political Sociology, Transactions of the Westermarck Society, vol. 10 (Helsinki: Academic Bookstore, 1964); Dahl (fn. 3); Guillermo O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Institute of International Studies, Politics of Modernization Series no. 9 (Berkeley: University of California, 1973); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics 36 (January 1974); and Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).
80. Juan J. Linz, "An Authoritarian Regime: Spain," in Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen, eds., Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems: Contributions to Comparative Political Sociology, Transactions of the Westermarck Society, vol. 10 (Helsinki: Academic Bookstore, 1964); Dahl (fn. 3); Guillermo O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Institute of International Studies, Politics of Modernization Series no. 9 (Berkeley: University of California, 1973); Philippe C. Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics 36 (January 1974); and Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).