Ethnicity, patronage and the African state: The politics of uncivil nationalism

African Affairs

Volumn 97, Issue 388, 1998, Pages 305-341

  Berman, Bruce J ^a  

^a QUEEN S UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001101908     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007947     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. Globe and Mail, 6 April 1996.
2. Leroy Vail, 'Introduction: Ethnicity in southern African History', in Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (James Currey, London, 1989), pp. 1-3. See also Crawford Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class in Africa: A retrospective', Cahiers d'Études africaines, 103, XXVI-3 (1986), pp. 442-3, 453-5; and Peter Ekeh, 'Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32, 4 (1990), pp. 688-89.
3. Leroy Vail, 'Introduction: Ethnicity in southern African History', in Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (James Currey, London, 1989), pp. 1-3. See also Crawford Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class in Africa: A retrospective', Cahiers d'Études africaines, 103, XXVI-3 (1986), pp. 442-3, 453-5; and Peter Ekeh, 'Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32, 4 (1990), pp. 688-89.
4. Leroy Vail, 'Introduction: Ethnicity in southern African History', in Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (James Currey, London, 1989), pp. 1-3. See also Crawford Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class in Africa: A retrospective', Cahiers d'Études africaines, 103, XXVI-3 (1986), pp. 442-3, 453-5; and Peter Ekeh, 'Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 32, 4 (1990), pp. 688-89.
5. Quoted in Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the legacy of late colonialism (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1996), p. 135.
6. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth century ethnography, literature and art (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1989), p. 17.
7. Carles Tilly makes the distinction between the theoretical focus on common relationships rather than more deterministic models of common sequences or outcomes in 'Reflections on the history of European state-making', in Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1975), pp. 15-17.
8. Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer, The Great Arch: English state formation as cultural revolution (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1985), pp. 189-90.
9. James Manor, 'Introduction', to Manor, ed., Rethinking Third World Politics (Longman, London and New York, 1991), pp. 7-9. 'Thick description' derives from Clifford Geertz. The Interpretation of Cultures (Basic Books, New York, 1973), ch. 1.
10. James Manor, 'Introduction', to Manor, ed., Rethinking Third World Politics (Longman, London and New York, 1991), pp. 7-9. 'Thick description' derives from Clifford Geertz. The Interpretation of Cultures (Basic Books, New York, 1973), ch. 1.
11. Geertz, Interpretation of Cultures; Jean-François Bayart, 'Finishing with the idea of the Third World: The concept of the political trajectory', in Manor, Rethinking Third World Politics, pp. 62-5; and Angelique Haugerud, The Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995), p. 52.
12. Geertz, Interpretation of Cultures; Jean-François Bayart, 'Finishing with the idea of the Third World: The concept of the political trajectory', in Manor, Rethinking Third World Politics, pp. 62-5; and Angelique Haugerud, The Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995), p. 52.
13. Geertz, Interpretation of Cultures; Jean-François Bayart, 'Finishing with the idea of the Third World: The concept of the political trajectory', in Manor, Rethinking Third World Politics, pp. 62-5; and Angelique Haugerud, The Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995), p. 52.
14. Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological perspectives (Pluto Press, London, 1993), pp. 8-9, 32-3, 88-90; Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (Verso Press, London, revised ed., 1991), esp. chs. 7 and 10. The comparison between African ethnicity and the ethnic nationalisms of Europe falls beyond the scope of this essay, but it is illuminating for both and I hope to explore it in a further paper.
15. Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological perspectives (Pluto Press, London, 1993), pp. 8-9, 32-3, 88-90; Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (Verso Press, London, revised ed., 1991), esp. chs. 7 and 10. The comparison between African ethnicity and the ethnic nationalisms of Europe falls beyond the scope of this essay, but it is illuminating for both and I hope to explore it in a further paper.
16. The development and critique of the changing paradigms for the study of ethnicity in Africa are perceptively discussed in Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity, and class in Africa', and Carola Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa: a review of four decades of anglophone research', Cahiers des sciences humaines, 31, 2 (1995).
17. The development and critique of the changing paradigms for the study of ethnicity in Africa are perceptively discussed in Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity, and class in Africa', and Carola Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa: a review of four decades of anglophone research', Cahiers des sciences humaines, 31, 2 (1995).
18. Crawford Young, 'Evolving modes of consciousness and ideology: Nationalism and ethnicity', in David Apter and Carl Rosberg, eds., Political Development and the New Realism in Sub-Saharan Africa (University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1994), p. 77.
19. Erikson, Ethnicity and Nationalism, pp. 54-5; J. D. Y. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', in Elizabeth Tonkin et al., eds., History and Ethnicity (Routledge, London, 1989), pp. 198-200.
20. Erikson, Ethnicity and Nationalism, pp. 54-5; J. D. Y. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', in Elizabeth Tonkin et al., eds., History and Ethnicity (Routledge, London, 1989), pp. 198-200.
21. The seminal statement of this perspective is Aidan Southall, 'The illusion of Tribe', Journal of Asian and African Studies, v, 1 (1970). See also the discussions in Carola Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', pp. 316-7; Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1993), pp. 4, 25-6.
22. The seminal statement of this perspective is Aidan Southall, 'The illusion of Tribe', Journal of Asian and African Studies, v, 1 (1970). See also the discussions in Carola Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', pp. 316-7; Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1993), pp. 4, 25-6.
23. The seminal statement of this perspective is Aidan Southall, 'The illusion of Tribe', Journal of Asian and African Studies, v, 1 (1970). See also the discussions in Carola Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', pp. 316-7; Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1993), pp. 4, 25-6.
24. On the Shona see Terence Ranger, 'Missionaries, migrants and the Manyika: The invention of ethnicity in Zimbabwe', in Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, and on the Yoruba, Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis'.
25. On the Shona see Terence Ranger, 'Missionaries, migrants and the Manyika: The invention of ethnicity in Zimbabwe', in Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, and on the Yoruba, Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis'.
26. R. Fardon, 'Ethnicity, the person and the "Problem of Identity" in West Africa', cited in Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', p. 319.
27. R. Fardon, 'Ethnicity, the person and the "Problem of Identity" in West Africa', cited in Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', p. 319.
28. John Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, poverty and civic virtue in Kikuyu political thought', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa, Book two: Violence and ethnicity (James Currey, London, 1992).
29. On the importance of the 'big man' syndrome in Western Bantu cultures see Jan Vansina, Paths Through the Rainforest (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1990). The Ethiopian version, tilik saw, is 'as extreme an example as you will find anywhere in Africa'. (Christopher Clapham, personal communication, December 1997.) On pawnship see Toyin Falola and Paul Lovejoy, eds., Pawnship in Africa (Westview Press, Boulder, 1994).
30. On the importance of the 'big man' syndrome in Western Bantu cultures see Jan Vansina, Paths Through the Rainforest (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1990). The Ethiopian version, tilik saw, is 'as extreme an example as you will find anywhere in Africa'. (Christopher Clapham, personal communication, December 1997.) On pawnship see Toyin Falola and Paul Lovejoy, eds., Pawnship in Africa (Westview Press, Boulder, 1994).
31. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', p. 200; Jacqueline Solway, 'Multi-party democracy and ethnic politics in Botswana: grassroots perspectives', Canadian Research Consortium on Southern Africa, University of Toronto, November 1995. See also Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa (Malthouse Press, Lagos, 1994), pp. 20-1; Githu Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', in Harvey Glickman, ed., Ethnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa (African Studies Association Press, Atlanta, 1995), pp. 170-3.
32. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', p. 200; Jacqueline Solway, 'Multi-party democracy and ethnic politics in Botswana: grassroots perspectives', Canadian Research Consortium on Southern Africa, University of Toronto, November 1995. See also Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa (Malthouse Press, Lagos, 1994), pp. 20-1; Githu Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', in Harvey Glickman, ed., Ethnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa (African Studies Association Press, Atlanta, 1995), pp. 170-3.
33. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', p. 200; Jacqueline Solway, 'Multi-party democracy and ethnic politics in Botswana: grassroots perspectives', Canadian Research Consortium on Southern Africa, University of Toronto, November 1995. See also Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa (Malthouse Press, Lagos, 1994), pp. 20-1; Githu Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', in Harvey Glickman, ed., Ethnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa (African Studies Association Press, Atlanta, 1995), pp. 170-3.
34. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', p. 200; Jacqueline Solway, 'Multi-party democracy and ethnic politics in Botswana: grassroots perspectives', Canadian Research Consortium on Southern Africa, University of Toronto, November 1995. See also Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa (Malthouse Press, Lagos, 1994), pp. 20-1; Githu Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', in Harvey Glickman, ed., Ethnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa (African Studies Association Press, Atlanta, 1995), pp. 170-3.
35. Shaheen Mozaffar, 'The institutional logic of ethnic politics: A prolegomenon', in Glickman, ed., Ethnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa, pp. 60-1.
36. Bogumil Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture and ethnicity in the Belgian Congo, 1920-1959', in Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, p. 325.
37. It is in the similar importance of written texts in the process of cultural invention that the comparison between African ethnicity and European nationalism is most revealing. See the comments on the European experience by Ernest Gellner in Nations and Nationalism (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1983), pp. 55-61, which can be applied to Africa with only minor modifications.
38. Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', pp. 323-4.
39. This is discussed in Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: the dialectic of domination (James Currey and Ohio University Press, London and Athens, Ohio, 1990), PP. 16-23.
40. The remainder of this paragraph is adapted from Mozaffar, 'The institutional logic of ethnic polities', pp. 37-55. Mozaffar develops his model in the context of the 'new institutionalism', but the basic points are not unique to that approach and it is not adopted here.
41. Bruce Berman, 'Structure and process in the bureaucratic states of colonial Africa', in Berman and Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa, Book One: State and class.
42. Crawford Young's recent account in The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1994) takes the 'bula matari' image as the reality of a state exercising unconstrained power over its African subjects, thereby missing the complex, but often shrouded, underworld of collaboration, negotiation and conflict at local levels that intimately tied the colonial state to African societies and significantly constrained its power. This analysis is further developed in Bruce Berman, 'The perils of Bula Matari: Constraint and power in the colonial state', Canadian Journal of African Studies, forthcoming.
43. Crawford Young's recent account in The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1994) takes the 'bula matari' image as the reality of a state exercising unconstrained power over its African subjects, thereby missing the complex, but often shrouded, underworld of collaboration, negotiation and conflict at local levels that intimately tied the colonial state to African societies and significantly constrained its power. This analysis is further developed in Bruce Berman, 'The perils of Bula Matari: Constraint and power in the colonial state', Canadian Journal of African Studies, forthcoming.
44. Berman, 'Structure and process'; pp. 145-63; Catherine Boone, 'States and ruling classes in post-colonial Africa', in Joel Migdal et al., eds., State Power and Social Forces (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994), pp. 110, 114-15.
45. Berman, 'Structure and process'; pp. 145-63; Catherine Boone, 'States and ruling classes in post-colonial Africa', in Joel Migdal et al., eds., State Power and Social Forces (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994), pp. 110, 114-15.
46. Berman, Control and Crisis, esp chs. 1-2; Anne Phillips, The Enigma of Colonialism: British policy in West Africa (James Currey, London, 1989).
47. Berman, Control and Crisis, esp chs. 1-2; Anne Phillips, The Enigma of Colonialism: British policy in West Africa (James Currey, London, 1989).
48. Berman, 'Structure and process', p. 162.
49. Ekeh, 'Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', pp. 683-5; Terence Ranger, 'The invention of tradition revisited: the case of colonial Africa', in Ranger and O. Vaughan, eds., Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth Century Africa (London, 1993), PP. 14-15.
50. Ekeh, 'Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', pp. 683-5; Terence Ranger, 'The invention of tradition revisited: the case of colonial Africa', in Ranger and O. Vaughan, eds., Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth Century Africa (London, 1993), PP. 14-15.
51. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, chs. 2-3.
52. Robert Delavignette, Freedom and Authority in French West Africa (Columbia University Press, New York, 1950), p. 79.
53. Berman, 'Structure and process', pp. 160-3; Boone, 'States and ruling classes', pp. 113-17; Ronald Robinson, 'Non-European foundations of European imperialism: sketch for a theory of collaboration', in R. Owen and B. Sutcliffe, eds., Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (Longman, London, 1972).
54. Berman, 'Structure and process', pp. 160-3; Boone, 'States and ruling classes', pp. 113-17; Ronald Robinson, 'Non-European foundations of European imperialism: sketch for a theory of collaboration', in R. Owen and B. Sutcliffe, eds., Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (Longman, London, 1972).
55. Berman, 'Structure and process', pp. 160-3; Boone, 'States and ruling classes', pp. 113-17; Ronald Robinson, 'Non-European foundations of European imperialism: sketch for a theory of collaboration', in R. Owen and B. Sutcliffe, eds., Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (Longman, London, 1972).
56. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 338-39; Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 126-28; Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, ch. 5.
57. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 338-39; Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 126-28; Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, ch. 5.
58. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 338-39; Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 126-28; Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, ch. 5.
59. Boone, 'States and ruling classes', pp. 116-17.
60. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 336-7; Jonathan Barker, 'Stability and stagnation: the state in Senegal', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 11, (1977).
61. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 336-7; Jonathan Barker, 'Stability and stagnation: the state in Senegal', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 11, (1977).
62. The essentially ethnic or 'tribal' character of chiefs and headmen was indicated by the fact that, unlike the European officers of the provincial administrations or even the Africans who began to replace them in the last years of colonial rule, chiefs had few chances for promotion and were rarely if ever transferred to serve outside of their 'home' areas. Moreover, again unlike the officers of provincial administration, who were regularly transferred to prevent developing too close ties to powerful local interests, chiefs were expected to have such ties; and as time passed, were increasingly recruited from among the most powerful families. Delavingette noted that while the French directly appointed chiefs and headmen as subordinates of the field administration, they took increasing care to see that they came from the chiefly and politically powerful and wealthy families of pre-colonial society. See Delavignette, Freedom and Authority, p. 80.
63. D. M. P. McCarthy, Organizing underdevelopment from the inside: The bureacucratic economy in Tanganyika, 1919-1940', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 10, 4 (1977).
64. Peter Woodward, Sudan, 1898-1989: The unstable state (Lynne Rienner Publishers and Lester Cook Academic Publishing, Boulder and London, 1990), p. 5.
65. Terence Ranger, 'The invention of tradition in colonial Africa', in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983), pp. 237, 247.
66. Herman, Control and Crisis, pp. 104-15.
67. Ranger, 'The invention of tradition in colonial Africa', p. 220.
68. Ranger, 'The invention of tradition in colonial Africa', p. 228.
69. Sir Charles Eliot, The East African Protectorate (Edward Arnold, London, 1905); Sir Philip Mitchell, African Afterthoughts Hutchinson, London, 1954), pp. 18-19. The anthropological assumptions of colonial officials and how they shaped policy and practice is a subject that needs more study. There are some suggestive remarks about the ideas of British officials in Henrika Kuklick, The Savage Within: The social history of British anthropology, 1885-1945 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991), pp. 221-3.
70. Sir Charles Eliot, The East African Protectorate (Edward Arnold, London, 1905); Sir Philip Mitchell, African Afterthoughts Hutchinson, London, 1954), pp. 18-19. The anthropological assumptions of colonial officials and how they shaped policy and practice is a subject that needs more study. There are some suggestive remarks about the ideas of British officials in Henrika Kuklick, The Savage Within: The social history of British anthropology, 1885-1945 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991), pp. 221-3.
71. Sir Charles Eliot, The East African Protectorate (Edward Arnold, London, 1905); Sir Philip Mitchell, African Afterthoughts Hutchinson, London, 1954), pp. 18-19. The anthropological assumptions of colonial officials and how they shaped policy and practice is a subject that needs more study. There are some suggestive remarks about the ideas of British officials in Henrika Kuklick, The Savage Within: The social history of British anthropology, 1885-1945 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991), pp. 221-3.
72. Herman, Control and Crisis, pp. 106-8.
73. John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979), p. 323, and Charles Ambler, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1988), p. 32.
74. John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979), p. 323, and Charles Ambler, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1988), p. 32.
75. See the discussion of Asian colonial examples in Anderson, Imagined Communities, ch. 10. The development of surveillance, classification and enumeration as typical activities of the modern nation-state is discussed in Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1985), and Christopher Dandeker, Surveillance, Power and Modernity (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990).
76. See the discussion of Asian colonial examples in Anderson, Imagined Communities, ch. 10. The development of surveillance, classification and enumeration as typical activities of the modern nation-state is discussed in Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1985), and Christopher Dandeker, Surveillance, Power and Modernity (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990).
77. See the discussion of Asian colonial examples in Anderson, Imagined Communities, ch. 10. The development of surveillance, classification and enumeration as typical activities of the modern nation-state is discussed in Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1985), and Christopher Dandeker, Surveillance, Power and Modernity (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990).
78. The Kenya system, legislated in 1915 and brought into force from 1920, was a remarkable achievement for its (pre-computer) era and an expression of the colonial state's obession with control of the African population. See Berman, Control and Crisis, pp. 147, 153.
79. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 326-30.
80. Ranger, 'The invention of tradition in colonial Africa', p. 250.
81. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, ch. 4. The seminal works on the construction of customary law are Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985), and Sally Falk Moore, Social Facts and Fabrications (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986).
82. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, ch. 4. The seminal works on the construction of customary law are Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985), and Sally Falk Moore, Social Facts and Fabrications (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986).
83. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, ch. 4. The seminal works on the construction of customary law are Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985), and Sally Falk Moore, Social Facts and Fabrications (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986).
84. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', pp. 201-3; Ranger, 'Missions, migrants and the Manyika', pp. 125-41.
85. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', pp. 201-3; Ranger, 'Missions, migrants and the Manyika', pp. 125-41.
86. Adam Kuper, Anthropology and Anthropologists: The modern British school (Routledge, London, 2nd. ed. 1983), pp. 99-120; Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent, pp. 30-31.
87. Adam Kuper, Anthropology and Anthropologists: The modern British school (Routledge, London, 2nd. ed. 1983), pp. 99-120; Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent, pp. 30-31.
88. Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism, pp. 15-17.
89. Ranger, 'The invention of tradition revisited', pp. 21-27.
90. Dickson Eyoh, 'From economic crisis to political liberalization: Pitfalls of the new political sociology for Africa', African Studies Review, 39, 3 (1996), p. 66.
91. Ranger, 'The invention of tradition revisited', p. 25.
92. Berry, No Condition is Permanent, p. 8.
93. John Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', in Berman and Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, and 'Moral ethnicity and political tribalism', in Preben Kaarsholm and Jan Hultin, eds., Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and anthropological approaches to the study of ethnicity and nationalism (Institute for Development Studies, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark, 1994), pp. 131-50. More than twenty years ago Peter Ekeh also captured much of the two dimensions of moral ethnicity and political tribalism with his notion of the two publics in Africa. The primordial public is 'closely identified with primordial groupings, sentiments and activities, which nevertheless impinge on the public interest. The primordial public is moral and operates on the same moral imperatives as the private realm.' The other, the civic public, developed in relation to the colonial state and 'has no moral linkages with the private realm . . . The civil public in Africa is amoral and lacks the generalized moral imperatives operative in the private realm and in the primordial public.' See 'Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: A theoretical statement', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17, 1 (1975), p. 92. Ekeh's argument is important, particularly with regard to inter-ethnic politics and the linkages between ethnic communities and the state, but the quite different contemporary import of the terms 'primordial' and 'civic' make his concepts for the present analysis.
94. John Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', in Berman and Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, and 'Moral ethnicity and political tribalism', in Preben Kaarsholm and Jan Hultin, eds., Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and anthropological approaches to the study of ethnicity and nationalism (Institute for Development Studies, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark, 1994), pp. 131-50. More than twenty years ago Peter Ekeh also captured much of the two dimensions of moral ethnicity and political tribalism with his notion of the two publics in Africa. The primordial public is 'closely identified with primordial groupings, sentiments and activities, which nevertheless impinge on the public interest. The primordial public is moral and operates on the same moral imperatives as the private realm.' The other, the civic public, developed in relation to the colonial state and 'has no moral linkages with the private realm . . . The civil public in Africa is amoral and lacks the generalized moral imperatives operative in the private realm and in the primordial public.' See 'Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: A theoretical statement', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17, 1 (1975), p. 92. Ekeh's argument is important, particularly with regard to inter-ethnic politics and the linkages between ethnic communities and the state, but the quite different contemporary import of the terms 'primordial' and 'civic' make his concepts for the present analysis.
95. John Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', in Berman and Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, and 'Moral ethnicity and political tribalism', in Preben Kaarsholm and Jan Hultin, eds., Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and anthropological approaches to the study of ethnicity and nationalism (Institute for Development Studies, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark, 1994), pp. 131-50. More than twenty years ago Peter Ekeh also captured much of the two dimensions of moral ethnicity and political tribalism with his notion of the two publics in Africa. The primordial public is 'closely identified with primordial groupings, sentiments and activities, which nevertheless impinge on the public interest. The primordial public is moral and operates on the same moral imperatives as the private realm.' The other, the civic public, developed in relation to the colonial state and 'has no moral linkages with the private realm . . . The civil public in Africa is amoral and lacks the generalized moral imperatives operative in the private realm and in the primordial public.' See 'Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: A theoretical statement', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17, 1 (1975), p. 92. Ekeh's argument is important, particularly with regard to inter-ethnic politics and the linkages between ethnic communities and the state, but the quite different contemporary import of the terms 'primordial' and 'civic' make his concepts for the present analysis.
96. John Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', in Berman and Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, and 'Moral ethnicity and political tribalism', in Preben Kaarsholm and Jan Hultin, eds., Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and anthropological approaches to the study of ethnicity and nationalism (Institute for Development Studies, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark, 1994), pp. 131-50. More than twenty years ago Peter Ekeh also captured much of the two dimensions of moral ethnicity and political tribalism with his notion of the two publics in Africa. The primordial public is 'closely identified with primordial groupings, sentiments and activities, which nevertheless impinge on the public interest. The primordial public is moral and operates on the same moral imperatives as the private realm.' The other, the civic public, developed in relation to the colonial state and 'has no moral linkages with the private realm . . . The civil public in Africa is amoral and lacks the generalized moral imperatives operative in the private realm and in the primordial public.' See 'Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: A theoretical statement', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17, 1 (1975), p. 92. Ekeh's argument is important, particularly with regard to inter-ethnic politics and the linkages between ethnic communities and the state, but the quite different contemporary import of the terms 'primordial' and 'civic' make his concepts for the present analysis.
97. John Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', in Berman and Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, and 'Moral ethnicity and political tribalism', in Preben Kaarsholm and Jan Hultin, eds., Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and anthropological approaches to the study of ethnicity and nationalism (Institute for Development Studies, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark, 1994), pp. 131-50. More than twenty years ago Peter Ekeh also captured much of the two dimensions of moral ethnicity and political tribalism with his notion of the two publics in Africa. The primordial public is 'closely identified with primordial groupings, sentiments and activities, which nevertheless impinge on the public interest. The primordial public is moral and operates on the same moral imperatives as the private realm.' The other, the civic public, developed in relation to the colonial state and 'has no moral linkages with the private realm . . . The civil public in Africa is amoral and lacks the generalized moral imperatives operative in the private realm and in the primordial public.' See 'Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: A theoretical statement', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17, 1 (1975), p. 92. Ekeh's argument is important, particularly with regard to inter-ethnic politics and the linkages between ethnic communities and the state, but the quite different contemporary import of the terms 'primordial' and 'civic' make his concepts for the present analysis.
98. See, in particular, Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', passim; Vail, 'Ethnicity in Southern African History', pp. 7-11; Berry, No Condition is Permanent, pp. 32-39.
99. See, in particular, Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', passim; Vail, 'Ethnicity in Southern African History', pp. 7-11; Berry, No Condition is Permanent, pp. 32-39.
100. See, in particular, Lonsdale, 'The moral economy of Mau Mau', passim; Vail, 'Ethnicity in Southern African History', pp. 7-11; Berry, No Condition is Permanent, pp. 32-39.
101. Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism, pp. 68-69.
102. Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 133-34.
103. Berry, No Condition is Permanent, p. 42.
104. Ranger, 'The invention of tradition revisited', pp. 20-5.
105. Peter Ekeh, in particular, has stressed the importance of kinship concepts in the construction of ethnicity, tracing the relationship back in West Africa to responses to the slave trade. 'Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', pp. 673-83. In more modern terms, the kinship metaphor in African ethnicity is strikingly similar to the 'deep horizonal comradeship' of European nationalism described by Ben Anderson in Imagined Communities, p. 7.
106. Peter Ekeh, in particular, has stressed the importance of kinship concepts in the construction of ethnicity, tracing the relationship back in West Africa to responses to the slave trade. 'Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', pp. 673-83. In more modern terms, the kinship metaphor in African ethnicity is strikingly similar to the 'deep horizonal comradeship' of European nationalism described by Ben Anderson in Imagined Communities, p. 7.
107. Ranger, 'The invention of custom revisited', pp. 46-48.
108. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 340-42' Vail, 'Ethnicity in southern African History', pp. 15-16.
109. Jewsiewicki, 'The formation of the political culture of ethnicity', pp. 340-42' Vail, 'Ethnicity in southern African History', pp. 15-16.
110. See, for example, Jomo Kenyatta's pamphlets My People of Kikuyu and the Life of Chief Wangombe (Lutteworth Press, London, 1942), and Kenya, Land of Conflict (International African Service Bureau, London, 1945); and Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, 'The labours of Muigwithania: Jomo Kenyatta as author, 1928-1945', Research in African Literatures (forthcoming). Other East African examples are examined in Greg Maddox, '"Tribal" histories and the meta-narrative of nationalism', paper given at the conference of the African Studies Association, Orlando, November, 1995.
111. See, for example, Jomo Kenyatta's pamphlets My People of Kikuyu and the Life of Chief Wangombe (Lutteworth Press, London, 1942), and Kenya, Land of Conflict (International African Service Bureau, London, 1945); and Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, 'The labours of Muigwithania: Jomo Kenyatta as author, 1928-1945', Research in African Literatures (forthcoming). Other East African examples are examined in Greg Maddox, '"Tribal" histories and the meta-narrative of nationalism', paper given at the conference of the African Studies Association, Orlando, November, 1995.
112. See, for example, Jomo Kenyatta's pamphlets My People of Kikuyu and the Life of Chief Wangombe (Lutteworth Press, London, 1942), and Kenya, Land of Conflict (International African Service Bureau, London, 1945); and Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, 'The labours of Muigwithania: Jomo Kenyatta as author, 1928-1945', Research in African Literatures (forthcoming). Other East African examples are examined in Greg Maddox, '"Tribal" histories and the meta-narrative of nationalism', paper given at the conference of the African Studies Association, Orlando, November, 1995.
113. See, for example, Jomo Kenyatta's pamphlets My People of Kikuyu and the Life of Chief Wangombe (Lutteworth Press, London, 1942), and Kenya, Land of Conflict (International African Service Bureau, London, 1945); and Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, 'The labours of Muigwithania: Jomo Kenyatta as author, 1928-1945', Research in African Literatures (forthcoming). Other East African examples are examined in Greg Maddox, '"Tribal" histories and the meta-narrative of nationalism', paper given at the conference of the African Studies Association, Orlando, November, 1995.
114. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', pp. 204-9; John Lonsdale, '"Listen while I read": The orality of Christian literacy in the young Kenyatta's making of the Kikuyu', in Louise de la Gorgendière, ed., Ethnicity in Africa: Roots, meanings and implications (Edinburgh University, African Studies Centre, Edinburgh, 1996).
115. Peel, 'The cultural work of Yoruba ethnogenesis', pp. 204-9; John Lonsdale, '"Listen while I read": The orality of Christian literacy in the young Kenyatta's making of the Kikuyu', in Louise de la Gorgendière, ed., Ethnicity in Africa: Roots, meanings and implications (Edinburgh University, African Studies Centre, Edinburgh, 1996).
116. The most striking are the ethnographies produced by Africans educated in Western anthropology, such as Kenyatta's Facing Mount Kenya (Seeker and Warburg, London, 1938), discussed in Brace Berman, 'Ethnography as politics, politics as ethnography. Kenyatta, Malinowski and the making of Facing Mount Kenya', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 30, 3 (1996).
117. The most striking are the ethnographies produced by Africans educated in Western anthropology, such as Kenyatta's Facing Mount Kenya (Seeker and Warburg, London, 1938), discussed in Brace Berman, 'Ethnography as politics, politics as ethnography. Kenyatta, Malinowski and the making of Facing Mount Kenya', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 30, 3 (1996).
118. This paragraph is based on Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism, pp. 10-12, 18-21, 24-5, 38-42, 56-57, 66-69.
119. Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class', pp. 445-46. Class thus has both an internal and external relationship to ethnicity in Africa, stimulating new patterns of conflict within and between groups. To the extent that colonial stratification and uneven development created a correlation between the preponderant development of a literate elite, wealthy cash crop producers and/or indigenous commercial capital and particular communities (such as the Igbo in Nigeria or Kikuyu in Kenya), the basis was laid for the fear of other groups of post-colonial domination' and for increasing conflict.
120. Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', pp. 308-10.
121. The linkage of bureaucratic authoritarianism and patronage relations is not unique to colonial Africa. As Christopher Dandeker has noted, it was characteristic also of Europe in the partially market-dependent and politically autocratic transitional societies of the ancien regimes, in which the prefectural apparatus of control originated. See his Surveillance, Power and Modernity, pp. 44-51.
122. Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 180-91; Berry; No Condition is Permanent.
123. Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 180-91; Berry; No Condition is Permanent.
124. René Lemarchand, 'The state, the parallel economy, and the changing structure of patronage systems', in Donald Rothchild and Naomi Chazan, eds., The Precarious Balance: State and Society in Africa (Westview Press, Boulder, 1988), pp. 150-1.
125. Mozaffar, 'The institutional logic of ethnic polities', pp. 50-1. See also Ranger, 'The invention of tradition revisited', pp. 28-9.
126. Mozaffar, 'The institutional logic of ethnic polities', pp. 50-1. See also Ranger, 'The invention of tradition revisited', pp. 28-9.
127. Since the end of colonial rule this can even encompass the appropriation of elements of the culture and institutions of the colonizer into the 'tradition' of emergent ethnic communities, as in the development of an 'Angfophone" ethno-regional identify in Cameroon. See Dickson Eyoh, 'Conflicting narratives of a post-colonial trajectory: Anglophone protest and the politics of identity in Cameroon', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, (forthcoming) (1998).
128. Lentz, '"Tribalism" and ethnicity in Africa', pp. 322-24.
129. See the critical discussion in Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class', pp. 421, 469-72.
130. Eghosa Osaghae, Ethnicity and its Management in Africa: the democratisation link (Malthouse Press, Lagos, 1994), pp. 14-15.
131. See, for example, Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 45-50, and the early discussion in Bruce Berman, 'Clientelism and neo-colonialism: Centre-periphery relations and political development in African states', Studies in Comparative International Development, ix, 2 (1974).
132. See, for example, Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 45-50, and the early discussion in Bruce Berman, 'Clientelism and neo-colonialism: Centre-periphery relations and political development in African states', Studies in Comparative International Development, ix, 2 (1974).
133. John Saul, 'The state in post-colonial societies: Tanzania', in R. Miliband and J. Saville, eds., Socialist Register 1974 (Merlin Press, London, 1974). The over-developed state thesis is resurrected in a non-Marxist version in Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. The balloon metaphor is from Goran Hyden, No Shortcuts to Progress: African development management in perspective (Heinemann, London, 1983), p. 19.
134. John Saul, 'The state in post-colonial societies: Tanzania', in R. Miliband and J. Saville, eds., Socialist Register 1974 (Merlin Press, London, 1974). The over-developed state thesis is resurrected in a non-Marxist version in Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. The balloon metaphor is from Goran Hyden, No Shortcuts to Progress: African development management in perspective (Heinemann, London, 1983), p. 19.
135. John Saul, 'The state in post-colonial societies: Tanzania', in R. Miliband and J. Saville, eds., Socialist Register 1974 (Merlin Press, London, 1974). The over-developed state thesis is resurrected in a non-Marxist version in Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. The balloon metaphor is from Goran Hyden, No Shortcuts to Progress: African development management in perspective (Heinemann, London, 1983), p. 19.
136. Bayart, 'Finishing with the idea of the Third World', p. 52.
137. The concepts of high and deep politics are from John Lonsdale, 'States and social processes in Africa: an histographical survey', African Studies Review, 24, 2/3 (1981).
138. Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and democracy in Africa: Intervening variable (Malthouse Press, Lagos, 1994), pp. 46-7. On the pressures on nationalist leaders to conform to the nation-state model and reject others, including both tribal or pan-African, alternatives see Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the curse of the nation-state (James Currey, London, 1992), chs. 4 and 6 passim.
139. Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and democracy in Africa: Intervening variable (Malthouse Press, Lagos, 1994), pp. 46-7. On the pressures on nationalist leaders to conform to the nation-state model and reject others, including both tribal or pan-African, alternatives see Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the curse of the nation-state (James Currey, London, 1992), chs. 4 and 6 passim.
140. Tom Mboya, Freedom and After (Andre Deutsch, London, 1963), p. 61.
141. Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class', pp. 82-5.
142. See, for example, Jean Marie Allman, The Quills of the Porcupine: Asante nationalism in an emergent Ghana (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1993).
143. Bayart, The State in Africa: the politics of the belly (Longman, London, 1993), p. 78. See also pp. 60-103 for a comparative analysis of state forms of appropriation and accumulation.
144. Bayart, The state in Africa, pp. 218-27.
145. See, for example, the analysis of the reproduction of class, ethnic and patronage politics within and between churches in Kenya in Mutaho Ngunyi, 'Religious institutions and political liberalization in Kenya', in Peter Gibbon, ed., Markets, Civil Society and Democracy in Kenya (Nordiska Africainstitutet Uppsala, 1995).
146. Lemarchand, 'The state, the parallel economy, and the changing structure of patronage systems', pp. 158-60.
147. Donal Cruise O'Brien, 'The show of state in a neo-colonial twilight: Francophone Africa', in Manor, ed., Rethinking Third World Politics.
148. Emmanuel Terray, 'Le Climatiseur et La Veranda', quoted in O'Brien, 'The show of state in a neo-colonial twilight', pp. 151-52.
149. Emmanuel Terray, 'Le Climatiseur et La Veranda', quoted in O'Brien, 'The show of state in a neo-colonial twilight', pp. 151-52.
150. Achille Mbembe, 'Power and obscenity in the post-colonial period: The case of Cameroon', in Manor, ed., Rethinking Third World Politics.
151. Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 76 and 106.
152. Boone, 'States and Ruling Classes', pp. 124-9.
153. Benno Ndulu and Francis Mwega, 'Economic adjustment policies', in Joel Barkan, ed., Beyond Capitalism and Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania (Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1994), pp. 102-17; Tom Forrest, Politics and Economic Development in Nigeria (Westview Press, Boulder, new edn., 1995), pp. 242-8.
154. Benno Ndulu and Francis Mwega, 'Economic adjustment policies', in Joel Barkan, ed., Beyond Capitalism and Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania (Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 1994), pp. 102-17; Tom Forrest, Politics and Economic Development in Nigeria (Westview Press, Boulder, new edn., 1995), pp. 242-8.
155. Osaghae, Ethnicity and its management in Africa, pp. 22-3.
156. Anna Simons, 'Democratization and ethnic conflict: the kin connection', Nations and Nationalism, 3, 2 (1997), p. 276; Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 33-8, 192-8; Ekeh, Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', pp. 691-3.
157. Anna Simons, 'Democratization and ethnic conflict: the kin connection', Nations and Nationalism, 3, 2 (1997), p. 276; Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 33-8, 192-8; Ekeh, Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', pp. 691-3.
158. Anna Simons, 'Democratization and ethnic conflict: the kin connection', Nations and Nationalism, 3, 2 (1997), p. 276; Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 33-8, 192-8; Ekeh, Social anthropology and two contrasting uses of tribalism in Africa', pp. 691-3.
159. Carola Lentz, 'Home, death and leadership: discourses of an educated elite from north-western Ghana', Social Anthropology, 2, 2 (1994), pp. 153, 163-6; Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa, pp. 18-19; Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', pp. 168-9.
160. Carola Lentz, 'Home, death and leadership: discourses of an educated elite from north-western Ghana', Social Anthropology, 2, 2 (1994), pp. 153, 163-6; Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa, pp. 18-19; Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', pp. 168-9.
161. Carola Lentz, 'Home, death and leadership: discourses of an educated elite from north-western Ghana', Social Anthropology, 2, 2 (1994), pp. 153, 163-6; Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa, pp. 18-19; Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', pp. 168-9.
162. Mbembe, 'Power and obscenity in the post-colonial period', pp. 176-8; Lentz, 'Home, death and leadership', 1994, pp. 158-60.
163. Mbembe, 'Power and obscenity in the post-colonial period', pp. 176-8; Lentz, 'Home, death and leadership', 1994, pp. 158-60.
164. Lemarchand, 'The state, the parallel economy, and the changing structure of patronage systems', pp. 152-7; 161-5.
165. Haugerud, The Culture of Politics, pp. 71-106, 162-82.
166. Bayart, 'Finishing with Ae idea of the Third World', p. 66.
167. Eyoh, 'From economic crisis to political liberalization', p. 65.
168. Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class', p. 444; and also Lentz, 'Home, death and leadership', pp. 165-6.
169. Young, 'Nationalism, ethnicity and class', p. 444; and also Lentz, 'Home, death and leadership', pp. 165-6.
170. Ekeh, 'Colonialism and the two publics in Africa'. I discuss more fully the critical issue of social trust and its relation to the development of state and market in 'Ethnicity, social trust and the democratic process in Africa', paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association,
171. Ekeh, 'Colonialism and the two publics in Africa'. I discuss more fully the critical issue of social trust and its relation to the development of state and market in 'Ethnicity, social trust and the democratic process in Africa', paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Columbus, Ohio, November 1997. The relationship of social trust and modernity is analyzed in Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Polity Press, Cambridge, 1990).
172. See the trenchant discussion of how the relationship between security and the legitimacy and impartiality of the state makes possible broader social identities of class and interest, and how the lack of both in the Somali context compels reliance on the biologically ascribed identities of kinship and ethnicity in Simons, 'Democratization and ethnic conflict', PP. 278-83.
173. Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa, pp. 28-9. The only recent writer to emphasize the importance of what he termed 'the acceptance of the nation-state as the ultimate and impersonal arbiter of secular dispute', was Kalman Silvert. See his introduction to Silvert, ed., Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and development (Random House, New York, 1963).
174. Nnoli, Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa, pp. 28-9. The only recent writer to emphasize the importance of what he termed 'the acceptance of the nation-state as the ultimate and impersonal arbiter of secular dispute', was Kalman Silvert. See his introduction to Silvert, ed., Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and development (Random House, New York, 1963).
175. A critique of the use of the concept of 'civil society' in the analysis of contemporary African politics falls outside of the scope of this essay, but two trenchant examples are Eyoh, 'From economic crisis to political liberalization', and Robert Fatton, 'Africa in the age of democratization: The civic limitations of civil society', African Studies Review, 38, 2 (1995).
176. A critique of the use of the concept of 'civil society' in the analysis of contemporary African politics falls outside of the scope of this essay, but two trenchant examples are Eyoh, 'From economic crisis to political liberalization', and Robert Fatton, 'Africa in the age of democratization: The civic limitations of civil society', African Studies Review, 38, 2 (1995).
177. Fatton, 'Africa in the age of democratization', pp. 75, 72-3, 76-7.
178. In different contexts fundamentalist religious movements can either cut-across or reinforce ethnic and class cleavages. See Ruth Marshall, 'Power in the name of Jesus', Review of African Political Economy, 52 (1991), and other articles in that special issue on 'Fundamentalism in Africa'; and, Mutahi Ngunyi, 'Religious institutions and political liberalization in Kenya'.
179. In different contexts fundamentalist religious movements can either cut-across or reinforce ethnic and class cleavages. See Ruth Marshall, 'Power in the name of Jesus', Review of African Political Economy, 52 (1991), and other articles in that special issue on 'Fundamentalism in Africa'; and, Mutahi Ngunyi, 'Religious institutions and political liberalization in Kenya'.
180. In different contexts fundamentalist religious movements can either cut-across or reinforce ethnic and class cleavages. See Ruth Marshall, 'Power in the name of Jesus', Review of African Political Economy, 52 (1991), and other articles in that special issue on 'Fundamentalism in Africa'; and, Mutahi Ngunyi, 'Religious institutions and political liberalization in Kenya'.
181. The concept of political trajectory is developed in Bayait, 'Finishing with the idea of the Third World'.
182. See, for example, Muigai, 'Ethnicity and the renewal of competitive politics in Kenya', pp. 182-8, 190-1.
183. E. O. Akwetey, 'Ghana: Violent ethno-political conflicts and the democratic challenge', in A. O. Oluskoshi and L. Laakso, eds., Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa (Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala, 1996), pp. 102-3, 121-9; Osaghae, Ethnicity and its management in Africa, pp. 24-7.
184. E. O. Akwetey, 'Ghana: Violent ethno-political conflicts and the democratic challenge', in A. O. Oluskoshi and L. Laakso, eds., Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa (Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala, 1996), pp. 102-3, 121-9; Osaghae, Ethnicity and its management in Africa, pp. 24-7.