Immunomodulating activities of Ganoderma, a mushroom with medicinal properties

Food Reviews International

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 123-161

  Gao, Yihuai ^a   Chan, Eli ^b   Zhou, Shufeng ^b  

^a MASSEY UNIVERSITY   (New Zealand)

^b NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

Author keywords

Cancer; Chronic disease; Ganoderma; Immune function; Polysaccharide; Triterpenoid

Indexed keywords

CHRONIC DISEASE; GANODERMA; IMMUNE FUNCTION; IMMUNOMODULATION; MUSHROOM; TRITERPENOID;

ACTIVATION ANALYSIS; BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES; CELLS; CYTOLOGY; DISEASE CONTROL; MEDICINE; MODULATION; POLYSACCHARIDES; PROTEINS; TUMORS;

IMMUNOLOGY;

BASIDIOMYCOTA; FUNGI; GANODERMA; GANODERMA APPLANATUM; GANODERMA CAPENSE; GANODERMA LUCIDUM; GANODERMA TSUGAE; MOLVA MOLVA;

EID: 3042526658     PISSN: 87559129     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1081/FRI-120037158     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Appelbaum, J. W. (1992), The role of the immune system in the pathogenesis of cancer. Semin. Oncol. Nurs. 8:51-62.
2. Banchereau, J., Briere, F., Caux, C., Davoust, J., Lebecque, S., Liu, Y. J., Pulendran, B., Palucka, K. (2000). Immunobiology of dendritic cells. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 18:767-811.
3. Banchereau, J., Steinman, R. M. (1998). Dendritic cells and the control of immunity. Nature 392:245-252.
4. Bao, X., Fang, J., Li, X. (2001a). Structural characterization and immunomodulating activity of a complex glucan from spores of Ganoderma lucidum. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 65:2384-2391.
5. Bao, X. F., Duan, J. Y., Fang, X. Y., Fang, J. N. (2001b). Chemical modifications of the (1 → 3)-alpha-D-glucan from spores of Ganoderma lucidum and investigation of their physicochemical properties and immunological activity. Carbohyd. Res. 336:127-140.
6. Bao, X. F., Fang, J. N. (2001). Isolation and structural determination of a glucan from the spores of Ganoderma lucidum. Acta Baton. Sin. 43:312-315.
7. Bao, X. F., Liu, C. P., Fang, J. N., Li, X. Y. (2001c). Structural and immunological studies of a major polysaccharide from spores of Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Karst. Carbohyd. Res. 332:67-74.
8. Bao, X. F., Zhen, Y., Ruan, L., Fang, J. N. (2002). Purification, characterization, and modification of T lymphocyte-stimulating polysaccharide from spores of Ganoderma lucidum. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 50:623-629.
9. Battle, J., Ha, T. Z., Li, C. F., Dellabeffa, V., Rice, P., Kalbfleisch, J., Browder, W., Williams, D. (1998). Ligand binding to the (1 → 3)-beta-D-glucan receptor stimulates NF-kappa B activation, but not apoptosis in U937 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 249:499-504.
10. Berovic, M., Habijanic, J., Zore, I., Wraber, B., Hodzar, D., Boh, B., Pohleven, F. (2003). Submerged cultivation of Ganoderma lucidum biomass and immunostimulatory effects of fungal polysaccharides. J. Biotechnol. 103:77-86.
11. Cao, L. Z., Lin, Z. B. (2002), Regulation on maturation and function of dendritic cells by Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides. Immunol. Lett. 83:163-169.
12. Cao, L. Z., Lin, Z. B. (2003). Regulatory effect of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides on cytotoxic T-lymphocytes induced by dendritic cells in vitro. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 24:321-326.
13. Chai, H., Wang, F., Zhang, Z., Yang, J., Zhang, Y. (1997). Constituents from the fruiting body of Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Karst. Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Materia Medica 22:552-553.
14. Chang, R. (1996). The central importance of the beta-glucan receptor as the basis of immunologic bioactivity of Ganoderma polysaccharides. In: Mizuno, T., Kim, B. K., eds. Reishi. Seoul: II Yang Press, 177-179.
15. Chang, S. T., Buswell, J. A. (1999). Ganoderma lucidum (Curt.: Fr.) P. Karst. (Apphyllophoromycetideae) - A mushrooming medicinal mushroom. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 1:139-146.
16. Chang, S. T., Mshigeni, K. E. (2000). Ganoderma lucidum - Paramount among medicinal mushrooms. Discov. Innovat. 12:97-101.
17. Chen, J. H., Jiang, R. L. (1980). A pharmacological study of the Chinese drug lingzhi (Ganoderma). Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 15:234-244.
18. Chen, W. C., Hau, D. M. (1995). Effects of Ganoderma lucidum on cellular immunocompetence in gamma-irradiated mice. Phytother. Res. 9:533-535.
19. Chen, W. C., Hau, D. M., Lee, S. S. (1995a). Effects of Ganoderma lucidum and Krestin on cellular immunocompetence in gamma-ray-irradiated mice. Am. J. Chin. Med. 23:71-80.
20. Chen, W. C., Hau, D. M., Wang, C. C., Lin, I. H., Lee, S. S. (1995b). Effects of Ganoderma lucidum and Krestin on subset T-cell in spleen of gamma-irradiated mice. Am. J. Chin. Med. 23:289-298.
21. Chung, K. S., Kim, S. B., Chung, S. H. (1997). Immunoactivities of the protein-polysaccharides of the tips of the growing carpophores of Ganoderma lucidum. Yakhak Hoeji 41:105-110.
22. Currier, N. L., Miller, S. C. (2001). Echinacea purpurea and melatonin augment natural-killer cells in leukemic mice and prolong life span. J. Altern. Complem. Med. 7:241-251.
23. Diamond, M. S., Garcia-Aguilar, J., Bickford, J. K., Corbi, A. L., Springer, T. A. (1993). The I domain is a major recognition site on the leukocyte integrin Mac-1 (CD11b/CD 18) for four distinct adhesion ligands. J. Cell Biol. 120:1031-1043.
24. Feger, F., Varadaradjalou, S., Gao, Z. M., Abraham, S. N., Arock, M. (2002). The role of mast cells in host defense and their subversion by bacterial pathogen. Trends Immunol. 23:151-158.
25. Fiorucci, S., Antonelli, E., Morelli, O., Morelli, A. (1999). Pathogenesis of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug gastropathy. Ital. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 31:S6-S13.
26. Fisher, M., Yang, L. X. (2002). Anticancer effects and mechanisms of polysaccharide-K (PSK): implications of cancer immunotherapy. Anticancer Res. 22:1737-1754.
27. Gao, X. X., Fei, X. F., Wang, B. X., Zhang, J., Gong, Y. J., Minami, M., Nagata, T., Ikejima, T. (2000a). Effects of polysaccharides (FI0-b) from mycelium of Ganoderma tsugae on proinflammatory cytokine production by THP-1 cells and human PBMC (I). Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 21:1179-1185.
28. Gao, X. X., Wang, B. X., Fei, X. F., Zhang, J., Gong, Y. J., Minami, M., Nagata, T., Ikejima, T. (2000b). Effects of polysaccharides (FI0-c) from mycelium, of Ganoderma tsugae on proinflammatory cytokine production by THP-1 cells and human PBMC (II). Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 21:1186-1192.
29. Gao, Y. H., Zhou, S. F. (2003). Cancer prevention and treatment by Ganoderma, a mushroom with medicinal properties. Food Rev. Int. 19:275-325.
30. Gao, Y. H., Zhou, S. F., Chen, G. L., Lan, J., Ye, J. X. (2003). Effect of Ganopoly, a Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide extract on the immunological function in advanced-stage cancer patients. Immunol. Invest. 32:201-215.
31. Gao, Y. H., Zhou, S. F., Huang, M., Lan, J., Gao, H. (2002). Mechanisms for the protective effects of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide fraction on indomethacin-induced ulcer in the rat. Life Sci. 72:731-745.
32. Gau, J. P., Lin, C. K., Lee, S. S., Wang, S. R. (1990). The lack of antiplatelet effect of crude extracts from Ganoderma lucidum on HIV-positive hemophiliacs. Am. J. Chin. Med. 18:175-179.
33. Gillessen, A., Domschke, W. (1994). The role of cytokines and extracellular matrix proteins for the gastric ulcer healing process. Zeitschrift fur Gastroenterologie 32:691-693.
34. Giner-Larza, E. M., Manez, S., Giner-Pons, R. M., Recio, M. C., Rios, J. L. (2000). On the anti-inflammatory and anti-phospholipase A(2) activity of extracts from lanostane-rich species. J. Ethnopharmacol. 73:61-69.
35. Gong, Y. J., Fei, X. F., Gao, X. X., Zhang, J., Wang, B. X., Minami, M., Nagata, T., Ikejima, T. (2001). Effect of polysaccharide F III-2 from Ganoderma tsugae on proinflammatory cytokine production by THP-1 cells and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Zhonghua Yaolixue Yu Dulixue Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology 15:401-407.
36. Guo, B., Yen, G. Z. (1991). Effects of Ganoderma applanatum polysaccharide on cellular and humoral immunity in normal and sarcoma 180 transplanted mice. Phytother. Res. 5:134-138.
37. Haak-Frendscho, M., Kino, K., Sone, T., Jardieu, P. (1993). Ling Zhi-8: a novel T cell mitogen induces cytokine production and upregulation of ICAM-1 expression. Cell Immunol. 150:101-113.
38. Habijanic, J., Berovic, M., Wraber, B., Hodzar, D., Boh, B. (2001). Immunostimulatory effects of fungal polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum submerged biomass cultivation. Food Technol. Biotech. 39:327-331.
39. Han, M. D., Lee, E. S., Kim, Y. K., Lee, J. W., Jeong, H., Yoon, K. H. (1998). Production of nitric oxide in raw 264.7 macrophages treated with ganoderan, the beta-glucan of Ganoderma lucidum. Korean J. Mycol. 26:246-255.
40. Han, M. D., Lee, J. W., Jeong, H., Kim, Y. S., Ra, S. J., Yoon, K. H. (1999). Nitric oxide, TNF-alpha and TGF-beta formation of rat Kupffer cell activated by the beta-glucan from Ganoderma lucidum. Korean J. Appl. Microbiol. Bioengin. 27:28-34.
41. Hsu, H. Y., Lian, S. L., Lin, C. C. (1990). Radioprotective effect of Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex. Fr.) Karst after X-ray irradiation in mice. Am. J. Chin. Med. 18:61-69.
42. Hsu, M. J., Lee, S. S., Lee, S. T., Lin, W. W. (2003). Signaling mechanisms of enhanced neutrophil phagocytosis and chemotaxis by the polysaccharide purified from Ganoderma lucidum. Br. J. Pharmacol. 139:289-298.
43. Hsu, M. J., Lee, S. S., Lin, W. W. (2002). Polysaccharide purified from Ganoderma lucidum inhibits spontaneous and Fas-mediated apoptosis in human neutrophils through activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase/Akt signaling pathway. J. Leukocyte Biol. 72:207-216.
44. Hughes, D. A. (1999). Effects of dietary antioxidants on the immune function of middle-aged adults. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 58:79-84.
45. Hung, W. S., Fang, C. L., Su, C. H., Lai, W. F., Chang, Y. C., Tsai, Y. H. (2001). Cytotoxicity and immunogenicity of Sacchachitin and its mechanism of action on skin wound healing. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 56:93-100.
46. Hwang, S. F., Liu, K. J., Kuan, Y. H., Tung, K. S., Su, C. H., Tung, T. C. (1989). The inhibitory effect on artificial pulmonary metastasis of murine S-180 sarcoma cells by orally administered Ganoderma lucidum culture broth. J. Chin. Oncol. Soc. 5:10-15.
47. Jeong, H., Lee, J. W., Lee, K. H. (1990). Studies on the anticomplementary activity of Korean higher fungi. Korean J. Mycol. 18:145-148.
48. Kim, H. W., Kim, B. K. (1999). Biomedicinal triterpenoids of Ganoderma lucidum (Curt.:Fr.) P. Karst. (Aphyllophoromycetideae). Int. J. Med. Mushr. 1:121-138.
49. Kim, H. W., Shim, M. J., Kim, B. K. (2000). Ganoderma lucidum (Curt.:Fr) P. Kardst. (Aphyllophoromycetideae) inhibits proliferation of human peripheral blood lymphocytes by blocking interleukin-2 secretion. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 2:313-321.
50. Kim, R. S., Kim, H. W., Kim, B. K. (1997). Suppressive effects of Ganoderma lucidum on proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Mol. Cell. 7:52-57.
51. Kino, K., Sone, T., Watanabe, J., Yamashita, A., Tsuboi, H., Miyajima, H., Tsunoo, H. (1991). Immunomodulator, LZ-8, prevents antibody production in mice. M. J. Immunopharmacol. 13:1109-1115.
52. Kohda, H., Tokumoto, W., Sakamoto, K., Fujii, M., Hirai, Y., Yamasaki, K., Komoda, Y., Nakamura, H., Ishihara, S., Uchida, M. (1985). The biologically active constituents of Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Karst. Histamine release-inhibitory triterpenes. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 33:1367-1374.
53. Komoda, Y., Nakamura, H., Ishihara, S., Uchida, M., Kohda, H., Yamasaki, K. (1985). Structure of new terpenoid constituents of Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Karst. (Polyporaceae). Chem. Pharm. Bull. 33:4829-4835.
54. Konturek, P. C., Duda, A., Brzozowski, T., Konturek, S. J., Kwiecien, S., Drozdowicz, D., Pajdo, R., Meixner, H., Hahn, E. G. (2000). Activation of genes for Superoxide dismutase, interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 during healing of ischemiareperfusion-induced gastric injury. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 35:452-463.
55. Krishnaswamy, G., Kelley, J., Johnson, D., Youngberg, G., Stone, W., Huang, S. K., Bieber, J., Chi, D. S. (2001). The human mast cell: functions in physiology and disease. Front Biosci. 6:D1109-D1127.
56. Kubo, M., Matsuda, H., Nogami, M., Arichi, S., Takahashi, T. (1983). Ganoderma lucidum. (4) Effects on disseminated intravascular coagulation. Yakugaku Zasshi - Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan 103:871-877.
57. Lai, N. S., Lin, R. H., Lai, R. S., Kun, U. C., Leu, S. C. (2001). Prevention of autoantibody formation and prolonged survival in New Zealand Black/New Zealand White F1 mice with an ancient Chinese herb. Ganoderma tsugae. Lupus 10:461-465.
58. Lanier, L. L. (2001). On guard - activating NK cell receptors. Nat. Immunol. 2:23-27.
59. Lanzavecchia, A., Sallusto, F. (2001). Regulation of T cell immunity by dendritic cells. Cell 106:263-266.
60. Lee, J. O., Rieu, P., Arnaout, M. A., Liddington, R. (1995a). Crystal structure of the A domain from the alpha subunit of integrin CR3 (CD11b/CD18). Cell 80:631-638.
61. Lee, J. W., Chung, C. H., Jeong, H., Lee, K. H. (1990). Effects of alkali extract of Ganoderma lucidum IY007 on complement system. Korean J. Mycol, 18:137-144.
62. Lee, S. S., Wei, Y. H., Chen, C. F., Wang, S. Y., Chen, K. Y. (1995b). Antitumor effects of Ganoderma lucidum. J. Chin. Med. 6:1-12.
63. Lei, L. S., Lin, Z. B. (1992). Effect of Ganoderma polysaccharides on T cell subpopulations and production of interleukin 2 in mixed lymphocyte response. Yaoxue Xuebao - Acta Pharm. Sin. 27:331-335.
64. Lei, L. S., Lin, Z. B. (1993). Effects of Ganoderma polysaccharides on the activity of DNA polymerase alpha of splenocytes and immune function in aged mice. Yaoxue Xuebao - Acta Pharm. Sin. 28:577-582.
65. Lei, L. S., Lin, Z. B., Chen, Q., Li, R. Z., He, Y. Q. (1993). Antagonistic effect of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides on the immunosuppressive response induced by cyclosporin A, hydrocortisone and antitumor agents. Zhonghua Yaolixue Yu Dulixue Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology 7:183-185.
66. Li, H. F., Waisman, T., Maimon, Y., Shakhar, K., Rosenne, E., Ben-Eliyahu, S. (2001a). The effects of a Chinese herb formula, anti-cancer number one (ACNO), on NK cell activity and tumor metastasis in rats. Int. Immunopharmacol. 1:1947-1956.
67. Li, M. C., Lei, L. S., Liang, D. S. (1999a). Effect of Ganoderma polysaccharide on intracellular free calcium in murine peritoneal macrophages. Chin. Pharm. J. 34:805-807.
68. Li, M. C., Lei, L. S., Liang, D. S., Xu, Z. M., Yang, S. Q., Sun, L. S. (1999b). Effect of Ganoderma polysaccharides on intracellular pH in murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro. Chin. Pharmacol. Bull. 15:513-516.
69. Li, M. C., Lei, L. S., Liang, D. S., Xu, Z. M., Yang, S. Q., Sun, L. S. (2000a), Effect of Ganoderma polysaccharides on interleukin 1 alpha and tumor necrosis factor alpha mRNA expression in murine peritoneal macrophages. Zhonghua Yaolixue Yu Dulixue Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology 14:237-240.
70. Li, M. C., Lei, L. S., Liang, D. S., Xu, Z. M., Yang, S. Q., Sun, L. S. (2000b). Effect of Ganoderma polysaccharides on PKC activity in murine peritoneal macrophages. Chin. Pharmacol. Bull. 16:36-38.
71. Li, M. C., Lei, L. S., Liang, D. S., Xu, Z. M., Yuan, J. H., Yang, S. Q., Sun, L. S. (2000c). Effect of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides on oxygen free radicals in murine peritoneal macrophages. Zhonghua Yaolixue Yu Dulixue Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology 14:65-68.
72. Li, M. C., Lei, L. S., Wang, Q. B., Liang, D. S., Xu, Z. M., Yang, S. Q., Sun, L. S. (2001b). Effects of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides on inositol trisphosphate and diacylglycerol in murine T cells. Chin. Pharm. J. 36:526-528.
73. Li, M. C., Liang, D. S., Xu, Z. M., Lei, L. S., Yang, S. Q. (2000d). Effect of Ganoderma polysaccharides on cAMP in murine peritoneal macrophages. Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Materia Medico 25:41-43.
74. Li, Y., Cho, C. H. (1999). The ulcer healing effect of protamine sulphate in rat stomach. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther. 13:1351-1362.
75. Lieu, C. W., Lee, S. S., Wang, S. Y. (1993). The effect of Ganoderma lucidum on induction of differentiation in leukemic U937 cells. Anticancer Res. 12:1211-1215.
76. Lin, J. M., Lin, C. C., Chiu, H. F., Yang, J. J., Lee, S. G. (1993). Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and liver-protective effects of Anoectochilus formosanus, Ganoderma lucidum and Gynostemma pentaphyllum in rats. Am. J. Chin. Med. 21:59-69.
77. Lin, W. H., Hung, C. H., Hsu, C. I., Lin, J. Y. (1997). Dimerization of the N-terminal amphipathic alpha-helix domain of the fungal immunomodulatory protein from Ganoderma tsugae (Fip-gts) defined by a yeast two-hybrid system and site-directed mutagenesis. J. Biol. Chem. 272:20044-20048.
78. Liu, E. S. L., Cho, C. H. (2000). Relationship between ethanol-induced gastritis and gastric ulcer formation in rats. Digestion 62:232-239.
79. Liu, G. T. (1999). Recent advances in research of pharmacology and clinical applications of Ganoderma P. Karst, species (Aphyllophoromycetideae) in China. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 1:63-67.
80. Liu, Y. J. (2001). Dendritic cell subsets and lineages, and their functions in innate and adaptive immunity. Cell 106:259-262.
81. Ljunggren, H. G., Karre, K. (1990). In search of the "missing self": MHC molecules and NK cell recognition. Immunol. Today 11:237-244.
82. Lowell, J. A., Parnes, H. L., Blackburn, G. L. (1990). Dietary immunomodulation: beneficial effects on oncogenesis and tumor growth. Crit. Care Med. 18:145-148.
83. Mao, T., van De Water, J., Keen, C. L., Stern, J. S., Hackman, R., Gershwin, M. E. (1999). Two mushrooms, Grifola frondosa and Ganoderma lucidum, can stimulate cytokine gene expression and proliferation in human T lymphocytes. Int. J. Immunother. 15:13-22.
84. McNeela, E. A., Mills, K. H. G. (2001), Manipulating the immune system: humoral versus cell-mediated immunity. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 51:43-54.
85. Miller, J. S. (2002). Biology of natural killer cells in cancer and infection. Cancer Invest. 20:405-419.
86. Min, B. S., Gao, J. J., Hattori, M., Lee, H. K., Kim, Y. H. (2001). Anticomplement activity of terpenoids from the spores of Ganoderma lucidum. Planta. Med. 67:811-814.
87. Miyazaki, T., Nishijima, M. (1981). Studies on fungal polysaccharides. XXVII. Structural examination of a water-soluble, antitumor polysaccharide of Ganoderma lucidum. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 29:3611-3616.
88. Mizushina, Y., Hanashima, L., Yamaguchi, T., Takemura, M., Sugawara, F., Saneyoshi, M., Matsukage, A., Yoshida, S., Sakaguchi, K. (1998a). A mushroom fruiting body-inducing substance inhibits activities of replicative DNA polymerases. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 249:17-22.
89. Mizushina, Y., Watanabe, I., Togashi, H., Hanashima, L., Takemura, M., Ohta, K., Sugawara, F., Koshino, H., Esumi, Y., Uzawa, J., Matsukage, A., Yoshida, S., Sakaguchi, K. (1998b). An ergosterol peroxide, a natural product that selectively enhances the inhibitory effect of linoleic acid on DNA polymerase beta. Biol. Pharm. Bull 21:444-448.
90. Muller, A., Rice, P. J., Ensley, H., Coogan, P. S., Kalbfleisch, J. H., Kelley, J. L., Love, E. J., Portera, C. A., Ha, T. Z., Browder, I. W., Williams, D. L. (1996). Receptor binding and internalization of a water-soluble (1 → 3)-beta-D-glucan biologic response modifier in two monocyte macrophage cell lines. J. Immunol. 156:3418-3425.
91. Murakami, K., Okajima, K., Harada, N., Isobe, H., Liu, W., Okabe, H. (1999). Plaunotol prevents indomethacin-induced gastric mucosal injury in rats by inhibiting neutrophil activation. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther. 13:521-530.
92. Muriel, P., Alba, N., Perez-Alvarez, V. M., Shibayama, M., Tsutsumi, V. K. (2001). Kupffer cells inhibition prevents hepatic lipid peroxidation and damage induced by carbon tetrachloride. Compar. Biochem. Physiol. 130:219-226.
93. Nakagawa, I., Hibino, Y., Ohashi, Y., Sugano, N. (1999). Augmentation of cytolytic activity of mouse splenic cells by a heteroglycan-protein fraction from culture medium of Ganoderma lucidum (Rei-shi) mycelia. Biotherapy 13:513-515.
94. Nogami, M., Ito, M., Kubo, M., Takahashi, M., Kimura, H., Matsuike, Y. (1986a). Studies on Ganoderma lucidum. VII. Anti-allergic effect. Yakugaku Zasshi - Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan 106:600-604.
95. Nogami, M., Tsuji, Y., Kubo, M., Takahashi, M., Kimura, H., Matsuike, Y. (1986b). Studies on Ganoderma lucidum. VI. Anti-allergic effect. Yakugaku Zasshi - Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan 106:594-599.
96. Nose, M., Terawaki, K., Iwahashi, N., Oguri, K., Ogihara, Y. (2002). Comparative study of the high molecular mass fraction and low molecular mass fraction of Sho-saiko-to in a murine immunologically induced liver injury model. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 25:64-67.
97. Oh, J. Y., Cho, K. J., Chung, S. H., Kim, J. H., Lillehoj, H. S., Chung, K. S. (1998). Activation of macrophages by GLB, a protein-polysaccharide of the growing tips of Ganoderma lucidum. Yakhak Hoeji 42:302-306.
98. Oh, J. Y., Chung, K. S. (1998). Flow cytometrical analysis of the antitumor and immunomodulatory activities of GLB-A and GLB-B, the protein-polysaccharide fractions of the growing tips of Ganoderma lucidum. Yakhak Hoeji 42:487-493.
99. Pan, S. M., Shin, Y. Jr., Hseu, R. S. (1997). Purification and characterization of manganese Superoxide dismutase from Ganoderma microsporum. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 42:1035-1043.
100. Patocka, J. (1999). Anti-inflammatory triterpenoids from mysterious mushroom Ganoderma lucidum and their potential possibility in modern medicine. Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove) 42:123-125.
101. Revillard, J. P. (2002). Innate immunity. Eur. J. Dermatol. 12:224-227.
102. Roitt, I., Brostoff, J., Male, D. (2001). Immunology. Edinburgh: Mosby.
103. Rosecke, J., Konig, W. A. (2000). Constituents of various wood-rotting basidiomycetes. Phytochemistry 54:603-610.
104. Ross, G. D., Vetvicka, V., Yan, J., Xia, Y., Vetvickova, J. (1999). Therapeutic intervention with complement and beta-glucan in cancer. Immunopharmacology 42:61-74.
105. Russell, J. H., Ley, T. J. (2002). Lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 20:323-370.
106. Shimada, T., Watanabe, N., Ohtsuka, Y., Endoh, M., Kojima, K., Hiraishi, H., Terano, A. (1999). Polaprezinc down-regulates proinflammatory cytokine-induced nuclear factor-kappa B activation and interleukin-8 expression in gastric epithelial cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 291:345-352.
107. Shimizu, N., Watanabe, T., Arakawa, T., Fujiwara, Y., Higuchi, K., Kuroki, T. (2000). Pentoxifylline accelerates gastric ulcer healing in rats: roles of tumor necrosis factor alpha and neutrophils during the early phase of ulcer healing. Digestion 61:157-164.
108. Sone, Y., Okuda, R., Wada, N., Kishida, E., Misaki, A. (1985). Structural and anti-tumor activities of polysaccharides isolated from fruiting body and the growing culture of mycelium of Ganoderma lucidum. Agr. Biol. Chem. 49:2641-2653.
109. Su, C., Shiao, M., Wang, C. (2000). Potentiation of ganodermic acid S on prostaglandin E(1)-induced cyclic AMP elevation in human platelets. Thromb. Res. 99:135-145.
110. Su, C. H. (1991). Taxonomy and physiologically active compounds of Ganoderma - a review. Bull. Taipei Med. Coll. 20:1-16.
111. Su, C. H., Sun, C. S., Juan, S. W., Ho, H. O., Hu, C. H., Sheu, M. T. (1999a). Development of fungal mycelia as skin substitutes: effects on wound healing and fibroblast. Biomaterials 20:61-68.
112. Su, C. H., Sun, C. S., Juan, S. W., Hu, C. H., Ke, W. T., Sheu, M. T. (1997). Fungal mycelia as the source of chitin and polysaccharides and their applications as skin substitutes. Biomaterials 18:1169-1174.
113. Su, C. Y., Shiao, M. S., Wang, C. T. (1999b). Differential effects of ganodermic acid S on the thromboxane A2-signaling pathways in human platelets. Biochem. Pharmacol. 58:587-595.
114. Su, G. L. (2002). Lipopolysaccharides in liver injury: molecular mechanisms of Kupffer cell activation. Am. J. Physiol. 283:G256-G265.
115. Szabo, I., Tarnawski, A. S. (2000). Apoptosis in the gastric mucosa: molecular mechanisms, basic and clinical implications. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 51:3-15.
116. Tanaka, S., Ko, K., Kino, K., Tsuchiya, K., Yamashita, A., Murasugi, A., Sakuma, S., Tsunoo, H. (1989). Complete amino acid sequence of an immunomodulatory protein, ling zhi-8 (LZ-8). An immunomodulator from a fungus, Ganoderma lucidium, having similarity to immunoglobulin variable regions. J. Biol. Chem. 264:16372-16377.
117. Tasaka, K., Akagi, M., Miyoshi, K., Mio, M., Makino, T. (1988a). Anti-allergic constituents in the culture medium of Ganoderma lucidum. (I). Inhibitory effect of oleic acid on histamine release. Agent Act 23:153-156.
118. Tasaka, K., Mio, M., Izushi, K., Akagi, M., Makino, T. (1988b). Anti-allergic constituents in the culture medium of Ganoderma lucidum. (II). The inhibitory effect of cyclooctasulfur on histamine release. Agent Act 23:157-160.
119. Thornton, B. P., Vetvicka, V., Pitman, M., Goldman, R. C., Ross, G. D. (1996). Analysis of the sugar specificity and molecular location of the beta-glucan-binding lectin site of complement receptor type 3 (CD11b/CD 18). J. Immunol. 156:1235-1246.
120. Trnovec, T., Hrmova, M. (1993). Immunomodulator polysaccharides: chemistry, disposition and metabolism. Biopharm. Drug Dispos, 14:187-195.
121. Ueda, H., Yamazaki, M. (2001). Induction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in solid tumor region by the orally administered synthetic muramyl dipeptide analogue, romurtide. Int. Immunopharmacol. 1:97-104.
122. Ukai, S., Kiho, T., Hara, C., Kuruma, I., Tanaka, Y. (1983). Polysaccharides in fungi. XIV. Anti-inflammatory effect of the polysaccharides from the fruit bodies of several fungi. J. Pharmacobio-Dyn. 6:983-990.
123. Underhill, D. M., Ozinsky, A. (2002). Phagocytosis of microbes: complexity in action. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 20:825-852.
124. Uthaisangsook, S., Day, N. K., Bahna, S. L., Good, R. A., Haraguchi, S. (2002). Innate immunity and its role against infections. Ann. Allerg. Asthma Immunol. 88:253-264.
125. van der Hem, L. G., van der Vliet, J. A., Bocken, C. F., Kino, K., Hoitsma, A. J., Tax, W. J. (1995). Ling Zhi-8: studies of a new immunomodulating agent. Transplantation 60:438-443.
126. Wan, F., Huang, D. (1992), Anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions of artificial and fermentative Ganoderma sinense (AFGS). Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Materia Medica 17:619-622.
127. Wang, C. N., Chen, J. C., Shiao, M. S., Wang, C. T. (1989). The aggregation of human platelet induced by ganodermic acid S. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 986:151-160.
128. Wang, C. N., Chen, J. C., Shiao, M. S., Wang, C. T. (1991). The inhibition of human platelet function by ganodermic acids. Biochem. J. 277:189-198.
129. Wang, G. S., Liu, G. T. (1995). Role of nitric oxide in immunological liver damage in mice. Biochem. Pharmacol 49:1277-1281.
130. Wang, M. Y., Lin, Z. B. (2000). Effects of triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum on immunological liver injury in vivo and in vitro. Chin. Pharm. J. 35:809-812.
131. Wang, M. Y., Liu, Q., Che, Q. M., Lin, Z. B. (2000). Effects of triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss ex Fr.) Karst on three different experimental liver injury models in mice. Yaoxue Xuebao - Acta Pharm. Sin. 35:326-329.
132. Wang, Q. B., Li, L. S., Su, L. S., Yen, S. Q. (1998). Effects of Ganoderma polysaccharide on IL-2 and IL-3 mRNA expressions in murine splenocytes in vitro. Chin. Pharmacol. Bull. 14:342-344.
133. Wang, S. Y., Hsu, M. L., Hsu, H. C., Tzeng, C. H., Lee, S. S., Shiao, M. S., Ho, C. K. (1997). The anti-tumor effect of Ganoderma lucidum is mediated by cytokines released from activated macrophages and T lymphocytes. Int. J. Cancer 70:699-705.
134. Wang, Y., Yang, J. M., Wang, Y. (2002). Studies on immune regulatory function of Ganoderma lucidum spore powder. Zhongguo Shiyongjun Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Edible Fungus 21:33-34.
135. Werner, G. H., Jolles, P. (1996). Immunostimulating agents - What next - A review of their present and potential medical applications. Eur. J. Biochem. 242:1-19.
136. Williams, D. L. (1997). Overview of (1 → 3)-beta-D-grucan immunobiology. Mediat. Inflam. 6:247-250.
137. Won, S. J., Lee, S. S., Ke, Y. H., Lin, M. T. (1989). Enhancement of splenic NK cytotoxic activity by the extracts of Ganoderma lucidum mycelium in mice. J. Biomed. Lab. Sci. 2:201-213.
138. Won, S. J., Lin, M. T., Wu, W. L. (1992). Ganoderma tsugae mycelium enhances splenic natural killer cell activity and serum interferon production in mice. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 59:171-176.
139. Xia, Y., Vetvicka, V., Yan, J., Hanikyrova, M., Mayadas, T., Ross, G. D. (1999). The beta-glucan-binding lectin site of mouse CR3 (CD11b/CD 18) and its function in generating a primed state of the receptor that mediates cytotoxic activation in response to iC3b-opsonized target cells. J. Immunol. 162:2281-2290.
140. Xiao, J. J., Lei, L. S., Zhao, X., Lin, Z. B. (1994). Changes of nuclear, DNA, RNA contents and ratio of nucleus to cytoplasm of murine splenocytes induced by Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides. Zhonghua Yaolixue Yu Dulixue Zazhi Chinese Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology 8:196-198.
141. Yamamoto, N., Sakagami, T., Fukuda, Y., Koizuka, H., Hori, K., Sawada, Y., Hikasa, Y., Tanida, N., Shimoyama, T. (2000). Influence of Helicobacter pylori infection on development of stress-induced gastric mucosal injury. J. Gastroenterol. 35:332-340.
142. Yang, J. J., Yu, D. Q. (1990). Synthesis of Ganoderma alkaloid A and B. Yaoxue Xuebao - Acta Pharm. Sin. 25:555-559.
143. Yang, Q. Y., Pai, S. S. (2000). The anti-ageing effects of Ganoderma essence. In: Proc. Int. Meet Ganoderma Sci. Beijing, p. 30.
144. Yang, T. J., Wei, H. L., Liu, G. T. (1997). Effects of 16 drugs on immunological liver injury induced by BCG + lipopolysaccharides in mice. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 18:185-188.
145. Yano, K., Matsuoka, H., Seo, Y., Kounoe, S., Saito, T., Tomoda, H. (1995). Restorative effect of romurtide for thrombocytopenia associated with intensive anticancer drug treatment and/or irradiation in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. Anticancer Res. 15:2883-2887.
146. You, Y. H., Lin, Z. B. (2002). Protective effects of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides peptide on injury of macrophages induced by reactive oxygen species. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 23:787-791.
147. Yu, J. G., Chen, R. Y., Yao, Z. X., Zhai, Y. F., Yang, S. L., Ma, J. L. (1990). Studies on constituents of Ganoderma-capense IV. The chemical structures of ganoine, ganodine and ganoderpurine. Yaoxue Xuebao - Acta Pharm. Sin. 25:612-616.
148. Zhang, G. L., Wang, Y. H., Ni, W., Teng, H. L., Lin, Z. B. (2002a). Hepatoprotective role of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide against BCG-induced immune liver injury in mice. World J. Gastroenterol. 8:728-733.
149. Zhang, H. M., Yao, W. J., Tian, H. K. (2002b). Effect of lugu Ganoderma lucidum on low-density lipoprotein oxidation and monocyte adhesion to endothelium. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi 22:534-537.
150. Zhang, J. S., Tang, Q. J., Zimmerman-Kordmann, M., Reutter, W., Fan, H. (2002c). Activation of B lymphocytes by GLIS, a bioactive proteoglycan from Ganoderma lucidum. Life Sci. 71:623-638.
151. Zhang, L. X., Mong, H., Zhou, X. B. (1993). Effect of Japanese Ganoderma lucidum on production of interleukin-2 from murine splenocytes. Zhonghua Zhongxiyi Jehe Zazhi - Chinese Journal of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine 13:613-615.
152. Zhang, Z. (1989). Inhibitory effect of medicinal fungi on hepatitis B virus in vitro and in vivo. Bull. Beijing Med. Univ. 21:455-459.
153. Zhou, S. F., Gao, Y. H. (2002). The immunomodulating effects of Ganoderma lucidum (Curt.: Fr) P. Karst (Ling Zhi, Reishi mushroom) (Aphyllophoromy- cetideae). Int. J. Med. Mushr. 4:1-11.
154. Zhou, S. F., Gao, Y. H., Chen, G. L., Dai, X. H., Ye, J. X. (2002). A Phase I/II study of a Ganoderma lucidum extract (Ganopoly) in patients with advanced cancer. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 4:207-214.