Idiopathic calcium oxalate urolithiasis: Risk factors and conservative treatment

Clinica Chimica Acta

Volumn 345, Issue 1-2, 2004, Pages 17-34

  Lewandowski, Sonja ^a   Rodgers, Allen L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Diet; Epidemiology; Health supplements; Idiopathic calcium oxalate urinary calculi; Race; Urinary risk factors

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM; CALCIUM OXALATE; OXALIC ACID;

BODY WEIGHT; CALCIUM INTAKE; CALCIUM OXALATE STONE; CALCIUM URINE LEVEL; CRYSTALLIZATION; DIET; DIET RESTRICTION; FLUID INTAKE; FRUIT; HUMAN; IDIOPATHIC CALCIUM OXALATE UROLITHIASIS; NEPHROLITHIASIS; OSTEOPOROSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN INTAKE; RECURRENT DISEASE; REDUCTION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; STONE FORMATION; URINARY EXCRETION; URINE VOLUME; UROLITHIASIS; VEGETABLE; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

ANIMALS; CALCIUM; CALCIUM OXALATE; CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL; DIET; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS; URINARY CALCULI; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 2942601184     PISSN: 00098981     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cccn.2004.03.009     Document Type: Review

References (209)

1. Rao P.N., Prendiville V., Buxton A., et al. Dietary management of urinary risk factors in renal stone formers. Br. J. Urol. 54:1982;578-583
2. Robertson W.G., Peacock M., Heyburn P.J., et al. The risk of calcium stone formation in relation to affluence and dietary animal protein. Urinary Calculus. 1981;3-12 PSG, Littleton, Massachusetts
3. Robertson W.G., Hughes H. Epidemiology of urinary stone disease in Saudi Arabis. Urolithiasis. 1994;453-455
4. Ramello A., Vitale C., Marangella M. Epidemiology of nephrolithiasis. J. Nephrol. 13(suppl. 3):2000;S45-S50
5. Scott R., Freeland R., Mowat W., et al. The prevalence of calcified upper urinary tract stone disease in random population - Cumberland health survey. Br. J. Urol. 49:1977;589-595
6. Ljunghall S. Renal stone disease. Studies of epidemiology and calcium metabolism. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 41:1977;1-96
7. Robertson W.G., Peacock M., Baker M., et al. Studies on the prevalence and epidemiology of urinary stone disease in men in Leeds. Br. J. Urol. (55):1983;595-598
8. Parks J.H., Coe F.L. A urinary calcium-citrate index for the evaluation of nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 30:1986;85-90
9. Conte A., Roca P., Gianotti M., Grases F. On the relation between citrate and calcium in normal and stone former subjects. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 21:1989;369-373
10. Coe F.L. Hyperuricosuric calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 13:1978;418-426
11. Heller H.J., Sakhaee K., Moe O.W., Pak C.Y. Etiological role of estrogen status in renal stone formation. J. Urol. 168:2002;1923-1927
12. Fan J., Chandhoke P.S., Grampas S.A. Role of sex hormones in experimental calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10(suppl. 14):1999;S376-S380
13. Robertson W.R. The economics of urinary stone management. Borghi L., Meschi T., Briganti A., Schianchi T., Novarini A. Kidney Stones, 8th European Symposium on Urolithiasis. 1999;169-172 Editoriale Bios, Cosenza
14. Sutherland J.W., Parks J.H., Coe F.L. Recurrence after a single renal stone in a community practice. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 11:1985;267-269
15. Ljungghall S., Danielson B.G. A prospective study of renal stone recurrences. Br. J. Urol. 56:1984;122-124
16. Chandhoke P.S. When is medical prophylaxis cost-effective for recurrent calcium stones? J. Urol. 168:2002;937-940
17. Strohmaier W.L., Hörmann M. Economic aspect of urolithiasis and metaphylaxis in Germany. Rodgers A.L., Hibbert B.E., Hess B., Khan S.R., Preminger G.M. Urolithiasis 2000. vol. 1:2000;406-409 University of Cape Town, Cape Town
18. Parks J.H., Coe F.L. The financial effects of kidney stone prevention. Kidney Int. 50:1996;1706-1712
19. Robertson W.G. The economic case for the biochemical screening of stone patients. Rodgers A.L., Hibbert B.E., Hess B., Khan S.R., Preminger G.M. Urolithiasis 2000. vol. 1:2000;403-405 University of Cape Town, Cape Town
20. Schwille P.O., Herrmann U. Environmental factors in the pathophysiology of recurrent idiopathic calcium urolithiasis (RCU), with emphasis on nutrition. Urol. Res. 20:1992;72-83
21. Al Hadramy M.S. Seasonal variations of urinary stone colic in Arabia. J. Pak. Med. Assoc. (47):1997;184-281
22. Wise R.O., Kark A.E. Urinary calculi and serum calcium levels in Africans and Indians. S. Afr. Med. J. (35):1961;47-50
23. Modlin M. The aetiology of renal stone: a new concept arising from studies on a stone-free population. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl. 40:1967;155-178
24. Whalley N.A., Moraes M.F.B.G., Shar T.G., et al. Lithogenic risk factors in the urine of black and white controls. Br. J. Urol. 82:1998;785-790
25. Borghi L., Meschi T., Amato F., Novarini A., Romanelli A., Cigala F. Hot occupation and nephrolithiasis. J. Urol. 150:1993;1757-1760
26. Ferrie B.G., Scott R. Occupation and urinary tract stone disease. Urology. 24:1984;443-445
27. Zheng W., Beiko D.T., Segura J.W., Preminger G.M., Albala D.M., Denstedt J.D. Urinary calculi in aviation pilots: what is the best therapeutic approach? J. Urol. 168:2002;1341-1343
28. Meyers A.M. Chemical composition of the urine in the normal black and white population. Ryall R. Urolithiasis 2. 1994;422 Prenell Press, New York
29. Muskat D.A. The problem of nephrolithiasis with special reference to the Bantu. S. Afr. J. Clin. Sci. 2:1951;18-38
30. Bateson E.M. Do Australian Aborigines suffer from renal tract calculi? Aust. N.Z. J. Med. 7:1977;380-381
31. Rodgers A.L. Urinary calculi: (I) Epidemiology. Update. 6:1991;18-31
32. Rodgers A.L., Lewandowski S. Effects of 5 different diets on urinary risk factors for calcium oxalate kidney stone formation: evidence of different renal handling mechanisms in different race groups. J. Urol. 168:2002;931-936
33. Marshall R.W., Cochran M., Hodgkinson A. Relationships between calcium and oxalic acid intake in the diet and their excretion in the urine of normal and renal-stone-forming subjects. Clin. Sci. 43:1972;91-99
34. Bleich H.L., Moore M.J., Lemann J. Jr., Adams N.D., Gary R.W. Urinary calcium excretion in human beings. New Engl. J. Med. 301:1979;535-541
35. Vahlensieck W. Review: the importance of diet in urinary stones. Urol. Res. 14:1986;283-288
36. Rose G.A. Current trends in urolithiasis research. Rous S.N. Stone Disease Diagnosis and Management. 1987;383-416 Grune and Stratton, Orlando
37. Goldfarb S. Diet and nephrolithiasis. Annu. Rev. Med. 45:1994;235-243
38. Pak C.Y.C. Kidney stones. Lancet. 130:1998;1115-1118
39. Heilberg I.P. Update on dietary recommendations and medical treatment of renal stone disease. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 15:2000;117-123
40. Robertson W.G., Peacock M. The cause of idiopathic calcium stone disease: hypercalciuria or hyperoxaluria? Nephron. 26:1980;105-110
41. Robertson W.G. Mild hyperoxaluria: a critical review and future outlook. Borghi L., Meschi T., Briganti A., Schianchi T., Novarini A. Kidney Stones, 8th European Symposium on Urolithiasis. 1999;33-42 Editoriale Bios, Cosenza
42. Schwille P.O., Manoharan M., Rumenapf G., et al. Oxalate measurement in the picomole range by ion chromatography: values in fasting plasma urine of controls and patients with ideopathic calcium urolithiasis. J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. 27:1989;87-99
43. Wilson D.M., Smith L.H., Erickson S.B., et al. Renal oxalate handling in normal subjects and patients with ideopathic renal lithiasis: primary and secondary hyperoxaluria. Walker V.R., Sutton R.A.L., Cameron E.C.B., et al. Urolithiasis. 1989;453-455 Plenum, New York
44. Earnest D.L., Johnson G., Williams H.E., Admirand W.H. Hyperoxaluria in patients with ileal resection: an abnormality in dietary oxalate absorption. Gastroenterologist. 66:1974;1114-1122
45. Allison M.J., Cook H.M., Milne D.B., et al. Oxalate degradation by gastrointestinal bacteria from humans. J. Nutr. 116:1986;455-460
46. Robertson W.G., Peacock M., Heyburn P.J., Marshall D.H. The role of affluence and diet in the genesis of calcium containing stones. Fortschr. Urol. Nephrol. 11:1978;5-9
47. Griffith H.M., O'Shea B., Maguire M., Keogh B., Kevany J.P. A case-control study of dietary intake of renal stone patients. Urol. Res. 14:1986;75-82
48. Ryall R.L., Hibberd C.M., Marshall V.R. The effect of crystalline monosodium urate on crystallisation of calcium oxalate in whole human urine. Urol. Res. 14:1986;63-65
49. Pak C.Y.C., Barilla D.E., Holt K., Brinkley L., Tolentino R., Zerwekh J.E. Effect of oral purine load and allopurinol on the crystallization of calcium salts in urine of patients with hyperuricosuria calcium urolithiasis. Am. J. Med. 65:1978;593-599
50. Ettinger B. Allopurinol for treatment of uric acid and calcium calculi. Pak C.Y.C. Pharmacological Treatment of Endocrinopathies. 1991;16-36 Karger, Basel
51. Tiselius H.G., Larsson L., Hellgren E. Clinical results of allopurinol treatment in prevention of calcium oxalate stone formation. J. Urol. 136:1986;50-53
52. Baggio B., Gambaro G., Paleari C., et al. Hydrochlorothiaxide and allopurinol vs. placebo on urinary excretion of stone promoters and inhibitors. Curr. Ther. Res. 34:1983;145-151
53. Hallson P.C., Rose G.A., Sulaiman S. Raising urinary citrate lowers calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate crystal formation in whole urine. Urol. Int. 28:1983;179-181
54. Nicar M.J., Hill K., Pak C.Y.C. Inhibition by citrate of spontaneous precipitation of calcium oxalate in vivo. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2:1987;215-220
55. Schwille P.O., Schmiedl A., Herrmann U., Fan J., Gottlieb D., Manoharan M., Wipplinger J. Magnesium, citrate, magnesium, citrate and magnesium-alkali citrate as modulators of calcium oxalate crystallization in urine: observations in patients with recurrent idiopathic calcium urolithiasis. Urol. Res. 27:1999;117-126
56. Ryall R.L., Harnett R.M., Marshall V.R. The effect of urine, pyrophosphate, citrate, magnesium and glycosaminoglycans on the growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals in vitro. Clin. Chim. Acta. 112:1981;349-356
57. Bek-Jensen H., Fornander A.M., Nilsson M.A., Tiselius H.G. Is citrate an inhibitor of calcium oxalate crystal growth in high concentrations of urine? Urol. Res. 24:1996;67-71
58. Tiselius H.G., Fornander A.M., Nilsson M.A. The effects of citrate and urine on calcium oxalate crystal aggregation. Urol. Res. (21):1993;363-366
59. Rudman D., Kutner M.H., Redd S.C., Waters W.C., Gerron G.G., Bleier J. Hypocitraturia in calcium nephrolithiasis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 55:1982;1052-1057
60. Nicar M.J., Skurla C., Sakhaee K., Pak C.Y.C. Low urinary citrate excretion in nephrolithiasis. Urology. 21:1983;8-14
61. Pak C.Y.C., Fuller C., Sakhaee K., Preminger G.M., Britton F. Long-term treatment of calcium nephrolithiasis with potassium citrate. J. Urol. 134:1985;11-19
62. Laminski N.A., Meyers A.M., Sonnekus M.I., Smyth A.E. Prevalence of hypercitraturia and hypopyrophosphaturia in recurrent calcium stone formers: as isolated defects or associated with other metabolic abnormalities. Nephron. 56:1990;379-386
63. Cupisti A., Morelli E., Lupetti S., Meola M., Barsotti G. Low urine citrate excretion as main risk factor for recurrent calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis in males. Nephron. 61:1992;73-76
64. Bilobrov V.M., Chugaj A.V., Bessarabov V.I. Urine pH variation dynamics in healthy individuals and stone formers. Urol. Int. 45:1990;326-331
65. Pak C.Y.C. Citrate and renal calculi: an update. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 20:1994;371-377
66. Tiselius H.G. A simplified estimate of the iron-activity product of calcium phosphate in urine. Eur. Urol. (10):1984;191-195
67. Messa P., Marangella M., Paganin L., et al. Different dietary calcium intake and relative supersaturation of calcium oxalate in the urine of patients forming renal stones. Clin. Sci. 93:1997;257-263
68. Trinchieri A., Mandressi A., Luongo P., et al. The influence of diet on urinary risk factors for stones in healthy subjects and idiopathic renal calcium stone formers. Br. J. Urol. 67:1991;230-236
69. Curhan G.C. A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. N. Engl. J. Med. 328:1993;833-838
70. Hesse A., Siener R., Heynek H., Jahnen A. The influence of dietary factors on the risk of urinary stone formation. Scanning Microsc. 7:1993;1119-1128
71. Massey L.K., Roman-Smith H., Sutton R.L. Effect of dietary oxalate and calcium on urinary oxalate and risk of formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 93:1993;901-906
72. de Mendonca O.G.C., Martini L.A., Baxmann A.C., et al. Effects of an oxalate load on urinary excretion in calcium stone formers. J. Renal Nutr. 13:2003;39-46
73. Heller H.J., Doerner M.F., Brinkley L.J., Adams-Huet B., Pak C.Y. Effects of dietary calcium on stone forming propensity. J. Urol. 169:2003;470-474
74. Curhan G.C., Willett W.C., Rimm E.B., Speizer F.E., Stampfer M.J. Body size and the risk of kidney stones. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 9:1998;1645-1652
75. Massey L.K. Dietary influences on urinary oxalate and risk of kidney stones. Front. Biosci. 8:2003;584-594
76. Hesse A., Schneeberger W., Engfeld S., et al. Intestinal hyperabsorption of oxalate in calcium oxalate stone formers: application of a new test using [13C2] oxalate. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10:1999;S329-S333
77. Brinkley L.J., Gregory J., Pak C.Y.C. A further study of oxalate bioavailability in foods. J. Urol. 144:1990;94-96
78. Holmes R.P., Goodman H.O., Assimos D.G. Contribution of dietary oxalate to urinary oxalate excretion. Kidney Int. 59:2001;270-276
79. Holmes R.P., Kennedy M. Estimation of the oxalate content of foods and daily oxalate intake. Kidney Int. 57:2000;1662-1667
80. Finch A.M., Kasidas G.P., Rose G.A. Urine composition in normal subjects after oral ingestion of oxalate-rich foods. Clin. Sci. 60:1981;411-418
81. Holmes R.P., Assimos D.G. Dietary oxalate and its influence on urinary oxalate excretion. Borghi L., Meschi T., Briganti A., Schianchi T., Novarini A. Kidney Stones, 8th European Symposium on Urolithiasis. 1999;495-497 Editoriale Bios, Cosenza
82. Hess B. Low calcium diet in hypercalciuric calcium nephrolithiasis: first do no harm. Scanning Microsc. 10:1996;547-554
83. Breslau N.A., Brinkley L., Hill K.D., et al. Relationship of animal protein-rich diet to kidney stone formation and calcium metabolism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 66:1988;140-146
84. Hess B., Jost C., Zipperle L., et al. High-oxalate intake abolishes hyperoxaluria and reduces urinary crystallisation during a 20-fold normal oxalate load in humans. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 13:1998;2241-2247
85. Kasidas G.P., Rose A. Oxalate content of some common foods: determination by an enzymatic method. J. Hum. Nutr. 34:1980;255-266
86. Kohman E.F. Oxalic acid in foods and its behaviour and fate in the diet. J. Nutr. 18:1939;233-237
87. Myers A.T. Seasonal changes in total and soluble oxalate in leafy blades and petioles of rhubarb. J. Agric. Res. 74:1947;33-36
88. Oke O.L. Oxalic acid in plants and in nutrition. World Rev. Nutr. Diet. 10:1969;262-303
89. Hodgkinson A. Evidence of increased oxalate absorption in patients with calcium containing renal stones. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 54:1978;291-294
90. Zarembski P.M., Hodgkinson A. Some factors influencing urinary excretion of oxalic acid in man. Clin. Chim. Acta. 25:1969;1-10
91. Honow R., Simon A., Hesse A. Comparison of excretion methods for the determination of soluble and total oxalate in foods by HPLC-enzyme-reactor. Food Chem. (78):2002;511-521
92. Sidhu H., Schmidt M.E., Cornelius J.G., et al. Direct correlation between hyperoxalauria/oxalate stone disease and the absence of the gastrointestinal tract-dwelling bacterium Oxalobacter formigenes: possible prevention by gut recolonization or enzyme replacement therapy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10:1999;S334-S340
93. Duncan S.H., Richardson A.J., Kaul P., Holmes R.P., Allison M.J., Stewart C.S. Oxalobacter formigenes and its potential role in human health. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. (68):2002;3841-3847
94. Robertson W.G. Diet and calcium stones. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 13:1987;228-234
95. Galosy R., Clarke L., Ward D.L., Pak C.Y. Renal oxalate excretion in calcium urolithiasis. J. Urol. 123:1980;320-323
96. Bataille P., Charransol G., Gregoire I., et al. Effect of calcium restriction on renal excretion of oxalate and the probability of stones in the carious pathophysiological groups with calcium stones. J. Urol. 130:1983;218-223
97. Caudarella R., Vescini F., Buffa A., et al. Bone mass loss in calcium stone disease: focus on hypercalciuria and metabolic factors. J. Nephrol. 16(2):2003 (Mar.-Apr.);260-266
98. Heilberg I.P., Martini L.A., Szejnfeld V.L., et al. Bone disease in calcium stone-forming patients. Clin. Nephrol. 42:1994;175-182
99. Zanchetta J.R., Rodriguez G., Negri A.L., del Valle E., Spivacow R. Bone mineral density in patients with hypercalciuric nephrolithiasis. Nephron. 73:1996;557-560
100. Jaeger P., Portman L., Jacquet A., Burckhardt P. Influence of the calcium content of the diet on the incidence of mild hyperoxaluria in idiopathic renal stone formers. Am. J. Nephrol. 5:1994;40-44
101. Coe F.L., Favus M.J., Crockett T., et al. Effects of a low calcium diet on urine calcium excretion, parathyroid function and serum 1, 25(OH)2D3 levels in patients with idiopathic hypercalciuria and in normal subjects. Am. J. Med. (72):1982;25-32
102. Fuss M., Pepersack T., Van Geel J., et al. Involvement of low-calcium diet in the reduced bone mineral content of idiopathic renal stone formers. Calcif. Tissue Int. 46:1990;9-13
103. Wahl C., Hess B. Kidney calculi - is nutrition a trigger or treatment. Rev. Ther. 57:2000;138-145
104. Robertson W.G., Heyburn P.J., Peacock M., et al. The effect of high protein intake on the risk of calcium stone formation in the urinay tract. Clin. Sci. 57:1979;285-288
105. Brockis J.G., Levitt J., Cruthers S.M. The effects of vegetable and animal protein diets on calcium, urate and oxalate excretion. Br. J. Urol. 54:1982;590-593
106. Fellström B., Danielson B.G., Karlström B., et al. Urinary composition and supersaturation on a high protein diet. Contrib. Nephrol. 37:1984;27-30
107. Nguyen Q.V., Kälin A., Drouve U. Sensitivity to meat protein intake and hyperoxalauria in idiopathic calcium stone formers. Kidney Int. 59:2001;2273-2281
108. Reddy S.T., Wang C.Y., Sakhaee K., Brinkley L., Pak C.Y. Effects of low-carbohydrate high-protein diets on acid-base balance, stone-forming propensity, and calcium metabolism. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 40:2002;265-274
109. Schuette S.A., Zemel M.B., Linkswiler H.M. Studies on the mechanism of protein-induced hypercalciuria in older men and women. J. Nutr. 110:1980;305-315
110. Massey L.K., Kynast-Gales S.A. Diets with either beef or plant proteins reduce risk of calcium oxalate precipitation in patients with a history of calcium kidney stones. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 101:2001;326-331
111. Siener R., Hesse A. The effect of different diets on urine composition and the risk of calcium oxalate crystallisation in healthy subjects. Eur. Urol. 42:2002;289-296
112. Giannini S., Nibile M., Sartori L., et al. Acute effects of moderate dietary protein restriction in patients with idiopathic hypercalciuria and calcium nephrolithiasis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69:1999;267-271
113. Hess B., Ackermann D., Essig M., Takkinen R., Jaeger P. Renal mass and serum calcitriol in male idiopathic calcium renal stone formers: role of protein intake. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 80:1995;1916-1921
114. Kerstetter J.E., O'Brien K.O., Insogna K.L. Low protein intake: the impact on calcium and bone homeostasis in humans. J. Nutr. 133:2003;855S-861S
115. Dawson-Hughes B. Interaction of dietary calcium and protein in bone health in humans. J. Nutr. 133:2003;852S-854S
116. Blackwood A.M., Cappuccio F.P., Sagnella G.A., et al. Epidemiology of blood pressure and urinary calcium excretion: importance of ethnic origin and diet. J. Hum. Hypertens. 13:1999;892-893
117. 3 deprivation in healthy adults. Kidney Int. 47:1995;899-906
118. Kok D.J., Iestra J.A., Doorenbos C.J., et al. The effect of dietary excesses in animal protein and in sodium on the composition and the crystallisation kinetics of calcium oxalate monohydrate in urines of healthy men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 4:1990;861-867
119. Sakhaee K., Harvey J.A., Padalino P.K., et al. The role of salt abuse on the risk for kidney stone formation. J. Urol. 150:1993;310-312
120. Brutis W.J., Gay L., Insogna K.L., et al. Dietary hypercalciuria in patients with calcium oxalate kidney stones. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60:1994;424-429
121. Massey L.K., Whiting S.J. Dietary salt, urinary calcium and bone loss. J. Bone Miner. Res. 11:1996;731-736
122. Trinchieri A., Nespoli R., Ostini F., Rovera F., Zanetti G., Pisani E. A study of dietary calcium and other nutrients in idiopathic renal calcium stone formers with low bone mineral content. J. Urol. 159:1998;654-657
123. Melton L.J., Crowson C.S., Khosla S., Wilson D.M., O'Fallon W.M. Fracture risk among patients with urolithiasis: a population-based cohort study. Kidney Int. 53:1998;459-464
124. Devine A., Criddle R.A., Dick I.M., Kerr D.A., Prince R.L. A longitudinal study of the effect of sodium and calcium intakes on regional bone density in postmenopausal women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62:1995;740-745
125. Matkovic V., Iilch J.Z., Andon M.B., Hsieh L.C., Tzagournis M.A., Lagger B.J., et al. Urinary calcium, sodium and bone mass of young females. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62:1995;417-425
126. Thom J.A., Morris J.E., Blacklock N.J. Effect of dietary sucrose on urinary calcium activity product. Urinary Calculus. 1981;103-115 PSG, USA
127. Leman J. Jr., Piering W.F., Lennon E.J. Possible role of carbohydrate-induced calciuria in calcium oxalate kidney-stone formation. N. Engl. J. Med. 280:1969;232-237
128. Wood R.J., Gerhardt A., Rosenberg J.H. Effects of glucose and glucose polymers on calcium absorption in healthy subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 46:1987;699-701
129. Knowles J.B., Wood R.J., Rosenberg J.H. Response of fractional calcium absorption in women to various coadministered oral glucose doses. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 48:1988;1471-1474
130. Rao P.N., Gordon C., Davies D., Blacklock N.J. Are stone formers maladapted to refined carbohydrates? Br. J. Urol. 54:1982;575-577
131. Nguyen N.U., Dumoulin G., Wolf P.J., Betenlay S. Urinary calcium and oxalate excretion in response to oral glucose load in man. Horm. Metab. Res. 18:1986;869-870
132. Nguyen N.U., Dumoulin G., Wolf P.J., Betenlay S. Urinary calcium and oxalate excretion during oral fructose or glucose load in man. Horm. Metab. Res. 21:1989;96-99
133. Baggio B., Plebani M., Gambaro G. Pathogenesis of Idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: update 1997. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 35:1998;153-187
134. Kurien T.B., Selvam R. Induction of lipid peroxidation in calcium oxalate stone formation. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 27:1989;450-453
135. 2 in patients with idiopathic hypercalciuria is a primary phenomenon. Clin. Sci. 83:1992;75-80
136. Baggio B., Budakovic A., Priante G., Gambaro G., Manzato E., Khan S. Dietary fatty supplementation modulates the urinary excretion of calcium and oxalate in the rat. Insight into calcium lithogenesis. Nephron. 91:2002;486-491
137. Hirayama H., Ikegami K., Shimomura T., et al. The possible role of prostaglandins E2 in urinary stone formation. J. Urol. 139:1988;451-549
138. Buck A.C., Davies R.L., Harrison T. The protective role of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in the pathogenesis of urolithiasis. J. Urol. 146:1991;188-194
139. Jarrar K., Graef V., Guttmann W. The use of wheat bran in calcium oxalate metaphylaxis and the decrease of calcium excretion. Urol. Res. 12:1984;42-45
140. Shar P.J.R., Williams G., Green N.A. Idiopathic hypercalciuria: its control with unprocessed bran. Br. J. Urol. 52:1980;426-430
141. Sandström B., Bügel S., McGaw B.A., Price J., Reid M.D. A high oat-bran intake does not impair zinc absorption in humans when added to a low-fibre animal protein-based diet. J. Nutr. 130:2000;594-599
142. 45Ca. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49:2001;4397-4401
143. Griffith H.M., O'Shea B., Kevany J.P., McCormick J.S. A control study of dietary factors in renal stone formation. Br. J. Urol. 53:1981;416-420
144. Jahnen A., Heynck H., Gertz B., et al. Dietary fibre: the effectiveness of a high bran intake in reducing renal calcium excretion. Urol. Res. 20:1992;3-6
145. Gleeson M.J., Thompson A.S., Mehta S., Griffith D.P. Effect of unprocessed wheat on calciuria and oxaluria in patients with urolithiasis. Urology. 35:1990;231-234
146. Hiatt R.A., Ettinger B., Caan B., Quesenberry C.P. Jr., Duncan D., Citron J.T. Randomized controlled trial of a low animal protein, high fibre diet in the prevention of recurrent calcium oxalate kidney stones. Am. J. Epidemiol. 144:1996;25-33
147. Rotily M., Leonetti F., Iovanna C., et al. Effects of low animal protein or high-fibre diets on urine composition in calcium nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 57:2000;1115-11123
148. Ebisuno S., Morimoto S., Yoshida T., Fukatani T., Yasukawa S., Ohkawa T. Rice-bran treatment for calcium stone formers with idiopathic hypercalciuria. Br. J. Urol. 58:1986;592-595
149. Hess B., Michel R., Takkinen R., Ackermann D., Jaeger P. Risk factors for low urinary citrate in calcium nephrolithiasis: low vegetable fibre intake and low urine volume to be added to the list. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 9:1994;642-649
150. Walker A.R.P., Walker B.F., Lelake A., et al. Dietary fibre intake and chronic bowel disease: transit time in blacks and white adolescents in South Africa. S. Afr. Food Sci. Nutr. (6):1994;55-58
151. Modlin M. Urinary phosphorylated inositols and renal stone. Lancet. 22:1980;1113-1114
152. Grases F., Gracia-Ferragut L., Costa-Bauza A. Study of early stages of renal stone formation: experimental model using urothelium of pig urinary bladder. Urol. Res. 74:1996;298-301
153. Grases F., Gracia-Gonzalez R., Torres J.J., et al. Effects of phytic acid on renal stone formation in rats. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 32:1998;262-265
154. Grases F., March J.G., Prieto R.M. Urinary phytate in calcium ocalate stone formers and healthy people. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 34:2000;162-164
155. Parivar F., Low R.K., Stoller M.L. The influence of diet on urinary stone disease. J. Urol. 155:1996;432-440
156. Milvy P., Colt E., Thornton J. A high incidence of urolithiasis in male marathon runners. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness. 3:1981;295-298
157. Goldfarb S. Dietary factors in the pathogenisis and prophylaxis of calcium nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 34:1988;544-555
158. Goldfarb S. The role of diet in the pathogenesis and therapy of nephrolithiasis. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am. 19:1990;805-820
159. Pak C.Y.C., Lynwood H.S., Resnick M.I., Weinerth J.L. Dietary management of idiopathic calcium urolithiasis. J. Urol. 131:1984;850-852
160. Borghi L., Meschi T., Amato F., et al. Urinary volume, water, and the recurrence in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: a 5-year randomized prospective study. J. Urol. 155:1996;839-843
161. Seltzer M.A., Low R.K., McDonald M., Shami G.S., Stoller M.L. Dietary manipulation with lemonade to treat hypocitraturia calcium nephrolithiasis. J. Urol. 156:1996;907-909
162. Curhan G.C., Willett W.C., Rimm E.B., Spiegelman D., Stampfer M.J. Prospective study of beverage use and the risk of kidney stones. Am. J. Epidemiol. (143):1996;240-247
163. McHarg T., Rodgers A., Charlton K. Influence of cranberry juice on the urinary risk factors for calcium oxalate kidney stone formation. BJU Int. 92:2003;765-768
164. Ackermann D., Baumann J.M., Futterlieb A., Zingg E.J. Influence of calcium content in mineral water on chemistry and crystallization conditions in urine of calcium stone formers. Eur. Urol. 14:1988;305-308
165. Bellizzi V., De Nicola L., Minutolo R., et al. Effects of water hardness on urinary risk factors for kidney stones in patients with idiopathic nephrolithiasis. Nephron. 81(suppl. 1):1999;66-70
166. Rodgers A.L. Effect of mineral water containing calcium and magnesium on calcium oxalate urolithiasis risk factors. Urol. Int. 58:1997;93-99
167. Rodgers A.L. The influence of South African mineral water on reduction of risk of calcium oxalate kidney stone formation. S.A. Med. J. (88):1998;448-451
168. Kessler T., Hesse A. Cross-over study of the influence of bicarbonate-rich mineral water on urinary composition in comparison with sodium potassium citrate in healthy male subjects. Br. J. Nutr. (84):2000;865-871
169. Curhan G.C., Willett W.C., Speizer F.E. Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Ann. Intern. Med. 126:1997;497-504
170. Sakhaee K., Baker S., Zerwekh J., Poindexter J., Garcia-Hermandez P.A., Pak C.Y.C. Limited risk of kidney stone formation during long-term calcium citrate supplementation in nonstone forming subjects. J. Urol. 152:1994;324-327
171. Levine B.S., Rodman J.S., Wienerman S., Bockman R.S., Lane J.M. Effect of calcium citrate supplementation on urinary calcium oxalate saturation in female stone formers: implications for prevention of osteoporosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60:1994;592-596
172. Williams C.P., Child D.F., Hudson P.R., et al. Why oral calcium supplementation may reduce renal stone disease: report of a clinical pilot study. J. Clin. Pathol. 54:2001;54-62
173. Domrongkitchaiporn S., Ongphiphadhanakul B., Stitchantrakul W., Chansirikarn S., Puavilai G., Rajatanavin R. Risk of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis in postmenopausal women supplemented with calcium or combined calcium and estrogen. Maturitas. 26:2002;149-156
174. Harvey J.A., Zobiz M.M., Pak C.Y.C. Calcium citrate: reduced propensity for the crystallization of calcium oxalate in the urine resulting from induced hypercalciuria of calcium supplementation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 61:1985;1223-1225
175. Allie S., Rodgers A.L. Effects of calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide and sodium citrate bicarbonate health supplements on the urinary risk factors for kidney stone formation. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 41:2003;39-45
176. Pak C.Y.C., Fuller C. Idiopathic hypocitraturic calcium-oxalate nephrolithiasis successfully treated with potassium citrate. Ann. Intern. Med. 104:1986;33-37
177. Abdulhadi M.H., Hall P.M., Streem S.B. Can citrate therapy prevent nephrolithiasis? Urology. 41:1993;221-224
178. Schwille P.O., Rumenapf G., Kohler R., Sorgel F. Effects of acute oral sodium potassium citrate load in healthy males - outlook for treatment of patients with calcium-containing renal stones. Urol. Int. 42:1987;81-88
179. Rumenapf G., Schwille P.O. The influence of oral alkali citrate on intestinal absorption in healthy man. Clin. Sci. 73:1987;117-121
180. Berg C., Larsson L., Tiselius H.G. Effects of different doses of alkaline citrate on urinae composition and crystallization of calcium oxalate. Urol. Res. 18:1990;13-16
181. Hofbauer J., Hobarth K., Szabo N., Marberger M. Alkali citrate prophylaxis in idiopathic recurrent calcium oxalate urolithiasis - a prospective randomized study. Br. J. Urol. 73:1994;362-365
182. Ogawa Y. Impact of sodium-potassium citrate on the diurnal variations in urinary calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate saturation levels in normal individuals. Br. J. Urol. (73):1994;136-141
183. Schwille P.O., Schmiedl A., Hermann U., Schwille R., Fink E., Manoharan M. Acute oral calcium-sodium citrate load in healthy males. Effects on acid-base and mineral metabolism, oxalate and other risk factors of stone formation in urine. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 19:1997;417-427
184. Pak C.Y.C., Koening K., Khan R., Haynes S., Padalino P. Physicochemical action of potassium-magnesium citrate in nephrolithiasis. J. Bone Miner. Res. 7:1992;281-285
185. Sakhaee K., Nicar M., Hill K., Pak C.Y.C. Contrasting effects of potassium citrate and sodium citrate therapies on urinary chemistries and crystallization of stone-forming salts. Kidney Int. 24:1983;348-352
186. Li M.K., Blacklock J.N., Garside J. Effects of magnesium on calcium oxalate crystallisation. J. Urol. 133:1985;123-125
187. Schwille P.O., Weippert J.H., Bausch W., Rumenapf G. Acute oral alkali citrate load in healthy humans - response of blood and urinary citrate, mineral metabolism, and factors related to stone formation. Urol. Res. 13:1985;161-168
188. Achilles W., Ulshöfer B. The effect of magnesium on the crystal growth rate of calcium oxalate in human urine. Magnes.-Bull. 7:1985;114-116
189. Siener R., Hesse A. Influence of a mixed and a vegetarian diet on urinary magnesium excretion and concentration. Br. J. Nutr. 73:1995;783-790
190. Barilla D.E., Notz C., Kennedy D., Pak C.Y.C. Renal oxalate excretion following oral oxalate loads in patients with ileal disease and with renal and absorptive hypercalciurias. Am. J. Med. 64:1978;576-585
191. Berg W., Brother C., Pirlick W., Janitzky V. Influence of magnesium on the absorption and excretion of calcium and oxalate ions. Eur. Urol. 12:1986;274-282
192. Yendt E.R. Renal Calculi. Can. Med. Assoc. J. (102):1970;479-489
193. Fetner C.D., Barilla D.F., Twonsend J., et al. Effect of magnesium oxide on the crystallization of calcium salts in urine in patients with recurrent nephrolithiasis. J. Urol. 120:1978;399-401
194. Johnason G., Backman U., Danielson B.C., et al. Magnesium metabolism in renal stone disease. Invest. Urol. 18:1980;93-97
195. Ettinger B., Citon J., Tang A. Controlled studies in stoneprophylaxis: comparison of placebo versus allopurinol/chlorthalidone/magnesium hydroxide. Urol. Res. 12:1984;49-55
196. Lieberman M., Costa G. Effects of calcium and magnesium on urinary oxalate excretion after oxalate loads. J. Urol. 163:2000;1565-1569
197. Kohri K., Ishikawa Y., Iguchi M., Kurita T., Okada Y., Yoshida O. Relationship between the incidence infection stones and the magnesium-calcium ratio of tap water. Urol. Res. 21:1993;269-272
198. Menon M., Mahle C.J. Oxalate metabolism and renal calculi. J. Urol. 127:1982;148-151
199. Power C., Barker D.J.P., Nelson M., et al. Diet and renal stones: case-control study. Br. J. Urol. 56:1984;456-459
200. A.C. Baxmann, C. De OG Mendonca, I.P. Heilberg, Effect of vitamin C supplements on urinary oxalate and pH calcium stone-forming patients.
201. Auer B.L., Auer D., Rodgers A.L. The effect of ascorbic acid ingestion on the biochemical and physicochemical risk factors associated with calcium oxalate kidney stone formation. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 36:1998;143-148
202. Curhan G.C., Willett W.C., Speizer F.E. Intake of vitamin B6 and C and the risk of kidney stones in women. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10:1999;840-845
203. Johnston C.S. Biomarkers for establishing a tolerable upper intake level for vitamin C. Nutr. Rev. 57(3):1999;71-77
204. Faber S.R., Feitler W.W., Bleiler R.E., et al. The effects of an induced pyridoxine and pantothenic acid deficiency on excretions of oxalic and xanthurenic acid in the urine. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 12:1963;406-410
205. Tommaso D., Tolomelli B., Mezzini R. Renal calcium phosphate and oxalate deposition in prolonged vitamin B6 deficiency: studies on a rat model of urolithiasis. Br. J. Urol. 89:2002;571
206. Gill H.S., Rose G.A. Mild metabolic hyperoxalauria and its response to pyridoxine. Urol. Int. 41:1986;393-396
207. Mitwalli A., Ayiomamitis A., Grass L., Oreopoulos D.G. Control of hyperoxaluria with large doses of pyridoxine in patients with kidney stones. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 20:1988;353-359
208. Tolomelli B., Caudarella R., Rizzoli E., et al. Relationships between some lithogenetic factors and vitamin B6 - status in idiopathic calcium lithiasis. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 61:1991;304-309
209. Edwards P., Nemat S., Rose G.A. Effects of oral pyridoxine upon plasma and 24-hour urinary oxalate levels in normal subjects and stone formers with idiopathic hypercalciuria. Urol. Res. 18:1990;296-393