Low birth weight and school readiness

Future of Children

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 91-116

  Reichman, Nancy E ^a  

^a RUTGERS ROBERT WOOD JOHNSON MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COGNITION; DISABILITY; EDUCATION; ETHNOLOGY; HUMAN; INFANT MORTALITY; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; LIFESTYLE; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MATERNAL AGE; NUTRITION; PRENATAL CARE; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; SCHOOL; SMOKING CESSATION; SOCIOECONOMICS; SURVIVAL; VERY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT;

AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COGNITION DISORDERS; HUMANS; INFANT, LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; INFANT, NEWBORN; RISK FACTORS; SCHOOL ADMISSION CRITERIA; SCHOOLS; SOCIAL CLASS; STUDENTS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 28044444783     PISSN: 10548289     EISSN: 15501558     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/foc.2005.0008     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. See the special issue of The Future of Children (vol. 5, no. 1, Spring 1995) devoted to low birth weight.
2. UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), The State of the World's Children (Oxford University Press, 2003).
3. T. J. Matthews, Fay Menacker, and Marian F. MacDorman, "Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2001 Period: Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set," National Vital Statistics Reports 52, no. 2. (Hyattsville, Md.: National Center for Health Statistics, September 15, 2003);
4. Maureen Hack, Nancy K. Klein, and H. Gerry Taylor, "Long-Term Developmental Outcomes of Low Birth Weight Infants," The Future of Children 5, no. 1 (1995), 176-96.
5. Jeffrey D. Horbar and Jerold F. Lucey "Evaluation of Neonatal Intensive Care Technologies," The Future of Children 5, no. 1 (1995): 139-16;
6. Virginia M. Fried and others, Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans (Hyattsville, Md.: National Center for Health Statistics, 2003).
7. Joyce A. Martin and others, "Births: Final Data for 2000," National Vital Statistics Reports 52, no. 10 (Hyattsville, Md.: National Center for Health Statistics, February 12, 2002).
8. Data on singleton births allow for comparisons over time that are not confounded by changes in the prevalence of multiple births.
9. The survival rate for normal birth weight singleton infants was 99 percent in 1960, 1980, and 2000.
10. For an extensive review of child medical and developmental conditions associated with low birth weight, see Hack, Klein, and Taylor, "Long-Term Developmental Outcomes of Low Birth Weight Infants" (see note 3);
11. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, "NINDS Cerebral Palsy Information Page" (www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/ disorders/cerebral_palsy.htm [July 14, 2004]) .
12. March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, "Cerebral Palsy" (www.marchofdimes.com/professionals/ 681_1208.asp [April 5, 2004]).
13. University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) Children's Hospital, "Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia" (www. ucsfhealth.org/childrens/ health_professionals/manuals/31_ChronicLungDis.pdf [April 5, 2004]);
14. UCSF Children's Hospital, "Respiratory Distress Syndrome" (www.ucsfhealth.org/childrens/health_professionals/ manuals/25_RDS.pdf [April 5, 2004]).
15. National Institutes of Health, National Eye Institute, "Retinopathy of Prematurity" (www.nei.nih.gov/ health/ rop/#2 [April 6, 2004]).
16. John M. Lorenz and others, "A Quantitative Review of Mortality and Developmental Disability in Extremely Premature Newborns," Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 152, no. 5 (1998): 425-35.
17. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
18. Ibid.
19. In 2000 the 2:1 ratio was present in the following maternal age groups: twenty to twenty-four, twenty-five to twenty-nine, thirty to thirty-four, thirty-five to thirty-nine, and forty to forty-four. The disparities are narrower for very young and very old mothers. For mothers younger than fifteen, the black-white low birth weight ratio is 1.4, for mothers aged fifteen to nineteen it is 1.7, and for mothers forty-five to fifty-four it is 1.3. Among singleton births, the rate of low birth weight in 2000 was 4.99 percent among white mothers and 11.15 percent among black mothers; the corresponding rates in 1980 were 4.90 and 11.46 percent, respectively. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
20. Kenneth C. Schoendorf and others, "Mortality among Infants of Black as Compared with White College Educated Parents," New England Journal of Medicine 326, no. 23 (1992): 1522-26.
21. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
22. Cande V. Ananth and others, "Small-For-Gestational-Age Births among Black and White Women: Temporal Trends in the United States," American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 4 (2003): 577-79.
23. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
24. W. Parker Frisbie and Seung-eun Song, "Hispanic Pregnancy Outcomes: Differentials over Time and Current Risk Factor Effects," Policy Studies Journal 31, no. 2 (2003), 237.
25. Jose E. Becerra and others, "Infant Mortality among Hispanics: A Portrait of Heterogeneity," Journal of the American Medical Association 265, no. 2 (1991): 217-21;
26. Fernando S. Mendoza and others, "Selected Measures of Health Status for Mexican-American, Mainland Puerto Rican, and Cuban-American Children," Journal of the American Medical Association 265, no. 2 (1991): 227-32.
27. Kyriakos S. Markides and Jeannine Coreil, "The Health of Hispanics in the Southwestern United States: An Epidemiological Paradox," Public Health Reports 101, no. 3 (1986): 253-65.
28. Nancy E. Reichman and Genevieve M. Kenney "The Effects of Parents' Place of Birth and Ethnicity on Birth Outcomes in New Jersey," in Keys to Successful Immigration: Implications of the New Jersey Experience, edited by Thomas J. Espenshade (Washington: Urban Institute Press, 1997): 199-230;
29. Nancy E. Reichman and Genevieve M. Kenney, "Prenatal Care, Birth Outcomes and Newborn Hospitalization Costs: Patterns among Hispanics in New Jersey," Family Planning Perspectives 30, no. 4 (1998): 182-87;
30. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
31. Gosta Rooth, "Low Birthweight Revised," Lancet 1, no. 8169 (1980): 639-41.
32. Nigel Paneth, "The Problem of Low Birth Weight," The Future of Children 5, no. 1 (1995): 19-34.
33. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
34. Stephen A. Norton, Genevieve M. Kenney, and Marilyn Rymer Ellwood, "Medicaid Coverage of Maternity Care for Aliens in California," Family Planning Perspectives 28, no. 3 (1996): 108-12;
35. Julia M. Solis and others, "Acculturation, Access to Care, and Use of Preventive Services by Hispanics: Findings from HHANES, 1982-84," American Journal of Public Health 80, suppl. (1990): 11-19;
36. Fernando M. Trevino and others, "Health Insurance Coverage and Utilization of Health Services by Mexican Americans, Mainland Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans," Journal of the American Medical Association 265, no. 2 (1991): 233-37;
37. Patricia Moore and Joseph T. Hepworth, "Use of Perinatal and Infant Health Services by Mexican-American Medicaid Enrollees," Journal of the American Medical Association 272, no. 14 (1994): 1111-15;
38. Sylvia Guendelman, "Mexican Women in the United States," Lancet 344, no. 8919 (1994): 352.
39. Nancy S. Landale, R. S. Oropesa, and Bridget K. Gorman, "Immigration and Infant Health: Birth Outcomes of Immigrant and Native-Born Women," in Children of Immigrants: Health, Adjustment and Public Assistance, edited by D. J. Hernandez (Washington: National Academy Press, 1999).
40. Howard J. Cabral and others, "Foreign-Born and U.S.-Born Black Women: Differences in Health Behaviors and Birth Outcomes," American Journal of Public Health 80, no. 1 (1990): 70-71;
41. Richard J. David and James W. Collins, "Differing Birth Weight among Infants of U.S.-Born Blacks, African-Born Blacks and U.S.-Born Whites," New England Journal of Medicine 337, no. 17 (1997): 1209-14;
42. Jing Fang, Shantha Madhavan, and Michael H. Alderman, "Low Birth Weight: Race and Maternal Nativity-Impact of Community Income," Pediatrics 103, no. 1 (1999): e5: 1-6;
43. Copal K. Singh and Stella M. Yu, "Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: Differences between U.S. and Foreign-Born Women in Major U.S. Racial and Ethnic Groups," American Journal of Public Health 86, no. 6 (1996): 837-43 .
44. Unless indicated otherwise, the analyses of trends in birth weight and survival are restricted to single live births, due to incomplete data for multiple births in 1980 and to allow for comparisons over time that are not confounded by changes in the prevalence of multiple births.
45. Wanda Barfield, "Racial/Ethnic Trends in Fetal Mortality-United States, 1990-2000," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 53, no. 24 (2004) (www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5324a4.htm [June 27, 2004]). These figures are not limited to singletons. The corresponding decreases for American Indians/Alaska Natives, Asians/Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics were 27 percent, 8 percent, and 16 percent, respectively.
46. Figures for singletons are computed from the same data sources as in figure 2. The corresponding infant mortality figures, including multiple births, for 1980 are 22 out of 1,000 and 11 out of 1,000 for blacks and whites, respectively; and for 2000, 14 out of 1,000 and 6 out of 1,000, respectively. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51, no. 27 (2002): 589-92 (www.cdc.gov/ mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5127al. htm [April 1, 2004]).
47. Data sources on survival rates are the same as in figure 2. Race-specific survival rates were also virtually identical for moderately low birth weight and normal birth weight in 2000. T. J. Matthews, Fay Menacker, and Marian F. MacDorman, "Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2000 Period: Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set," National Vital Statistics Reports 50, no. 12 (Hyattsville, Md.: National Center for Health Statistics, August 28, 2003).
48. In 1999, 3.1 percent of births to white mothers and 3.3 percent of births to black mothers were multiples. Black mothers were slightly more likely to have twins, and white mothers were slightly more likely to have higher-order multiple births. Rebecca B. Russell and others, "The Changing Epidemiology of Multiple Births in the United States," Obstetrics and Gynecology 101, no. 1 (2003): 129-35.
49. See sources for figures 2 and 3.
50. In 2000, 85 percent of deaths up to age five were of children under one year of age. Centers for Disease Control, "Deaths by Single Years of Age, Race, and Sex: United States, 2000," Year 2000 Mortality Statistics, table 310 (www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/statab/wkbl310.pdf [April 1, 2004]).
51. Marie C. McCormick and others, "The Health and Development Status of Very Low-Birth-Weight Children at School Age," Journal of the American Medical Association 267, no. 16 (1992): 2204-08;
52. Maureen Hack and others, "School-Age Outcomes in Children with Birth Weights under 75Og," New England Journal of Medicine 33, no. 12 (1994): 753-59.
53. Adnan T. Bhutta and others, "Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes of School-Aged Children Who Were Born Preterm: A Meta-Analysis," Journal of the American Medical Association 288, no. 6 (2002): 728-37.
54. Rachel Nonkin Avchen, Keith G. Scott, and Craig A. Mason, "Birth Weight and School-Age Disabilities: A Population-Based Study," American Journal of Epidemiology 154, no. 10 (2001): 895-901.
55. Jennifer Pinto-Martin and others, "Special Education Services and School Performance in a Regional Cohort of Low-Birthweight Infants at Age Nine," Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 18, no. 2 (2004): 120-29.
56. Betty R. Vohr and others, "Neurodevelopmental and Functional Outcomes of Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, 1993-1994," Pediatrics 105, no. 6 (2000): 1216-26;
57. Peter Anderson, Lex W. Doyle, and the Victorian Infant Collaborative Study Group, "Neurobehavioral Outcomes of School-Age Children Born Extremely Low Birth Weight or Very Preterm in the 1990s," Journal of the American Medical Association 289, no. 24 (2003): 3264-72.
58. Anderson and others, "Neurobehavioral Outcomes of School-Age Children Born Extremely Low Birth Weight or Very Preterm in the 1990s" (see note 40);
59. Bhutta and others, "Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes of School-Aged Children Who Were Born Preterm" (see note 37);
60. Jennifer R. Bowen, Frances L. Gibson, and Peter J. Hand, "Educational Outcome at 8 Years of Children Who Were Born Prematurely: A Controlled Study," Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 38, no. 5 (2002): 438-44;
61. Hack and others, "School-Age Outcomes in Children with Birth Weights under 75Og" (see note 36).
62. Glen P. Aylward, "Cognitive Function in Preterm Infants: No Simple Answers," Journal of the American Medical Association 289, no. 6 (2003): 752-53.
63. Anderson and others, "Neurobehavioral Outcomes of School-Age Children Born Extremely Low Birth Weight or Very Preterm in the 1990s" (see note 41);
64. Bhutta and others, "Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes of School-Aged Children Who Were Born Preterm" (see note 37).
65. Anderson and others, "Neurobehavioral Outcomes of School-Age Children Born Extremely Low Birth Weight or Very Preterm in the 1990s" (see note 40);
66. Bhutta and others, "Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes of School-Aged Children Who Were Born Preterm" (see note 37).
67. Anderson and others, "Neurobehavioral Outcomes of School-Age Children Born Extremely Low Birth Weight or Very Preterm in the 1990s" (see note 40);
68. Jane L. Hutton and others, "Differential Effects of Preterm Birth and Small Gestational Age on Cognitive and Motor Development," Archives of Diseases in Children 76, no. 2 (1997): F75-F81;
69. Susan A. Rose and Judith F. Feldman, "Memory and Processing Speed in Preterm Children at Eleven Years: A Comparison with Full-Terms," Child Development 67, no. 5 (1996): 2005-21.
70. Anderson and others, "Neurobehavioral Outcomes of School-Age Children Born Extremely Low Birth Weight or Very Preterm in the 1990s" (see note 40);
71. Bradley S. Peterson and others, "Regional Brain Volume Abnormalities and Long-Term Cognitive Outcome in Preterm Infants," Journal of the American Medical Association 284, no. 15 (2000): 1939-47.
72. Bhutta and others, "Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes of School-Aged Children Who Were Born Preterm" (see note 37).
73. Lynn T. Singer and others, "Maternal Psychological Distress and Parenting Stress after the Birth of a Very Low-Birth-Weight Infant," Journal of the American Medical Association 281, no. 9 (1999): 799-805.
74. Hack, Klein, and Taylor, "Long-Term Developmental Outcomes of Low Birth Weight Infants" (see note 3). A review of the more recent literature indicates that these rates have remained essentially unchanged.
75. There are as yet too few studies to derive reliable estimates of the size of these effects. See, for example, Thomas D. Matte and others, "Influence of Variation in Birth Weight within Normal Range and within Sibships on IQ at Age 7 Years: Cohort Study," British Medical Journal 323, no. 7308 (2001): 310-14;
76. Robert Kaestner and Hope Corman, "The Impact of Child Health and Family Inputs on Child Cognitive Development," Working Paper 5257 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1995);
77. Jason D. Boardman and others, "Low Birth Weight, Social Factors, and Developmental Outcomes among Children in the United States," Demography 39, no. 6 (2002): 353-68.
78. Anne Case, Angela Fertig, and Christina Paxson, "The Lasting Impact of Child Health and Circumstance," Journal of Health Economics (forthcoming).
79. Yolanda C. Padilla and others, "Is the Mexican American 'Epidemiologic Paradox' Advantage of Birth Maintained through Early Childhood?" Social Forces 80, no. 3 (2002): 1101-23.
80. Jeanne Brooks-Gunn and others, "The Black-White Test Score Gap in Young Children: Contributions of Test and Family Characteristics," Applied Developmental Science 7, no. 4 (2003): 239-52.
81. See Brooks-Gunn and others, "The Black-White Test Score Gap in Young Children" (note 53), for the magnitude of the observed total gap (denominator).
82. Dana Hughes and Lisa Simpson, "The Role of Social Change in Preventing Low Birth Weight," The Future of Children 5, no. 1 (1995): 87-102.
83. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Healthy People 2010, 2nd ed. (Government Printing Office, 2000).
84. Fried and others, Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans (see note 4).
85. Bernadette D. Proctor and Joseph Dalaker, "Poverty in the United States: 2002," Current Population Reports, P60-222 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003).
86. Stephanie J. Ventura and others, "The Demography of Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing," Report to Congress on Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1995).
87. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
88. Proctor and Dalaker, "Poverty in the United States" (see note 58). Poverty, in this case, identifies families with a female householder and no husband present.
89. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
90. Allison M. Fraser, John E. Brockert, and Ryk H. Ward, "Association of Young Maternal Age with Adverse Reproductive Outcomes," New England Journal of Medicine 332, no. 17 (1995): 1113-17.
91. Alan Guttmacher Institute, Sex and America's Teenagers (New York and Washington, 1994);
92. Cheryl D. Hayes, ed., Risking the Future: Adolescent Sexuality, Pregnancy, and Childbearing, vol. 1 (Washington: National Academy Press, 1987).
93. Arline T. Geronimus, "The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African-American Women and Infants: Evidence and Speculations," Ethnicity and Disease 2, no. 3 (1992): 207-21;
94. Arline T. Geronimus, "Black/White Differences in the Relationship of Maternal Age to Birthweight: A Population-Based Test of the Weathering Hypothesis," Social Science and Medicine 42, no. 4 (1996): 589-97.
95. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
96. Ibid.
97. Robert L. Goldenberg and Lorraine V. Klerman, "Adolescent Pregnancy-Another Look," New England Journal of Medicine 332, no. 17 (1995): 1161-62.
98. Sarah S. Brown and Leon Eisenberg, eds., The Best Intentions: Unintended Pregnancy and the Well-Being of Children and Families (Washington: National Academy Press, 1995).
99. Nancy E. Reichman and Deanna L. Pagnini, "Maternal Age and Birth Outcomes: Data from New Jersey," Family Planning Perspectives 29, no. 6 (1997): 268-72, 295.
100. Institute of Medicine, Committee to Study the Prevention of Low Birth Weight, Preventing Low Birth Weight (Washington: National Academy Press, 1985);
101. Charles J. Lockwood, "Predicting Premature Delivery-No Easy Task," New England Journal of Medicine 346, no. 4 (2002): 282-84.
102. Peter W Nathanielsz, "The Role of Basic Science in Preventing Low Birth Weight," The Future of Children 5, no. 1 (1995): 57-70;
103. Greg R. Alexander and Carol C. Korenbrot, "The Role of Prenatal Care in Preventing Low Birth Weight," American Journal of Public Health 5, no. 1 (1995): 103-20.
104. For an up-to-date discussion of what is known about the process of preterm birth, see Donald R. Mattison and others, eds., "The Role of Environmental Hazards in Premature Birth," Workshop Summary, Roundtable on Environmental Health Sciences, Research, and Medicine, Board of Health Sciences Policy (Washington: Institute of Medicine of the National Academy, 2003).
105. Nathanielsz, "The Role of Basic Science in Preventing Low Birth Weight";
106. Alexander and Korenbrot, "The Role of Prenatal Care in Preventing Low Birth Weight" (for both, see note 72).
107. Virginia Rail Chomitz, Lilian W. Y. Cheung, and Ellice Lieberman, "The Role of Lifestyle in Preventing Low Birth Weight," The Future of Children 5, no. 1 (1995): 121-38.
108. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
109. Sharon Hillier and others, "Association between Bacterial Vaginosis and Preterm Delivery of a Low-Birth-Weight Infant," New England Journal of Medicine 33, no. 26 (1995): 1737-42. Many studies have replicated this finding.
110. Chomitz, Cheung, and Lieberman, "The Role of Lifestyle in Preventing Low Birth Weight" (see note 74).
111. Martin and others, input "Births" (see note 5).
112. J. Durham and others, "Alcohol Consumption among Pregnant and Childbearing-Aged Women: United States, 1991 and 1995," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46, no. 16 (April 25, 1997) (www.health. org/nongovpubs/mmwr [April 1, 2004]).
113. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), "Drug Abuse in America: 2001," excerpted from the 2001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, September 5, 2002 (www. policyalmanac.org/crime/ archive/drug_abuse.shtml [January 21, 2004]).
114. Irvin Emanuel and others, "The Washington State Intergenerational Study of Birth Outcomes: Methodology and Some Comparisons of Maternal Birthweight and Infant Birthweight and Gestation in Four Ethnic Groups," Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 13, no. 3 (1999): 352-69;
115. James W. Collins Jr. and others, "Low Birth Weight across Generations," Maternal and Child Health Journal 7, no. 4 (2003): 229-37;
116. Dalton Conley Kate W. Strully, and Neil G. Bennett, The Starting Gate: Birth Weight and Life Chances (University of California Press, 2003);
117. Dalton Conley and Neil G. Bennett, "Is Biology Destiny? Birth Weight and Life Chances," American Sociological Review 65, no. 3 (2000): 458-67.
118. Conley Strully, and Bennett, The Starting Gate (see note 81).
119. Ellen L. Mozurkewich and others, "Working Conditions and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome: A Metaanalysis," Obstetrics and Gynecology 95, no. 4 (2000): 623-35.
120. Boguslaw Baranski, "Effects of the Workplace on Fertility and Related Reproductive Outcomes," Environmental Health Perspectives Supplements 101, suppl. 2 (1993): 81-90;
121. Sohail Khattak and others, "Pregnancy Outcome Following Gestational Exposure to Organic Solvents: A Prospective Controlled Study," Journal of the American Medical Association 281, no. 12 (1999): 1106-09;
122. Eunhee Ha and others, "Parental Exposure to Organic Solvents and Reduced Birth Weight," Archives of Environmental Health 57, no. 3 (2002): 204-14.
123. Jesse McKinnon, "The Black Population in the United States: March 2002," Current Population Reports, P20-541 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003). Corresponding figures for pregnant women alone are not available.
124. Council of Economic Advisers, Changing America: Indicators of Social and Economic Well-Being by Race and Hispanic Origin (September 1998) (www.access.gpo.gov/eop/ca/pdfs/ca.pdf).
125. Narayan Sastry and Jon M. Hussey "An Investigation of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Birth Weight in Chicago Neighborhoods," Demography 40, no. 4 (2003): 701-25.
126. See, for example, Jeffrey D. Morenoff, "Neighborhood Mechanisms and the Spatial Dynamics of Birth Weight," American Journal of Sociology 108, no. 5 (2003): 976-1017.
127. Ibid.
128. J. Felix Rogers and others, "Association of Very Low Birth Weight with Exposures to Environmental Sulfur Dioxide and Total Suspended Particulates," American Journal of Epidemiology 151, no. 6 (2000): 602-13;
129. Sven E. Rodenbeck, Lee M. Sanderson, and Antonio Rene, "Maternal Exposure to Trichloroethylene in Drinking Water and Birth Weight Outcomes," Archives of Environmental Health 55, no. 3 (2000): 188-94;
130. Akerke Baibergenova and others, "Low Birth Weight and Residential Proximity to PCB-Contaminated Waste Sites," Environmental Health Perspectives 111, no. 10 (2003): 1352-57.
131. Paul A. Jargowsky, Poverty and Place: Ghettos, Barrios, and the American City (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997).
132. Jacquetta M. Trasler and Tonia Doerksen, "Teratogen Update: Paternal Exposures-Reproductive Risks," Teratology 60, no. 3 (1999): 161-72.
133. Ruth E. Little and Charles F. Sing, "Association of Fathers Drinking and Infant's Birth Weight," New England Journal of Medicine 314, no. 25 (1986): 1644-45.
134. Jun Zhang and Jennifer M. Ratcliffe, "Paternal Smoking and Birthweight in Shanghai," American Journal of Public Health 83, no. 2 (1993): 207-10;
135. Fernando D. Martinez, Anne L. Wright, and Lynn M. Taussig, "The Effect of Paternal Smoking on the Birthweight of Newborns Whose Mothers Did Not Smoke," American Journal of Public Health 84, no. 9 (1994): 1489-91.
136. David A. Savitz and others, "Male Pesticide Exposure and Pregnancy Outcome," American Journal of Epidemiology 146, no. 12 (1997): 1025-37;
137. Fetter Kristensen and others, "Perinatal Outcome among Children of Men Exposed to Lead and Organic Solvents in the Printing Industry," American Journal of Epidemiology 137, no. 2 (1993): 134-44;
138. Maarja-Liisa Lindbohm, "Effects of Parental Exposure to Solvents on Pregnancy Outcome," Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 37, no. 8 (1995): 908-14;
139. Shao Lin and others, "Does Paternal Occupational Lead Exposure Increase the Risks of Low Birth Weight or Prematurity?" American Journal of Epidemiology 148, no. 2 (1998): 173-81;
140. Yi Min, Adolfo Correa-Villasenor, and Patricia A. Stewart, "Parental Occupational Lead Exposure and Low Birth Weight," American Journal of Industrial Medicine 30, no. 5 (1996): 569-78.
141. McKinnon, "The Black Population in the United States" (see note 85).
142. Janet Currie and Jonathan Gruber, "Saving Babies: The Efficacy and Cost of Recent Changes in the Medicaid Eligibility of Pregnant Women," Journal of Political Economy 104, no. 6 (1996): 1263-96;
143. Lisa Dubay and others, "Changes in Prenatal Care Timing and Low Birth Weight by Race and Socioeconomic Status: Implications for the Medicaid Expansions for Pregnant Women," Health Services Research 36, no. 2 (2001): 373-98.
144. Greg R. Alexander, Michael D. Kogan, and Sara Nabukera, "Racial Differences in Prenatal Care Use in the United States: Are Disparities Decreasing?" American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 12 (2002): 1970-75. Although timing of care is widely used as a measure of prenatal care use, it captures neither the intensity nor the quality of care received. The Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization (APNCU) Index, which is based on both the timing of prenatal care and the number of visits, does a better job of capturing the intensity of care; for a description and comparison with earlier indexes of the adequacy of prenatal care, see
145. Milton Kotelchuck, "An Evaluation of the Kessner Adequacy of Prenatal Care Index and a Proposed Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization Index," American Journal of Public Health 84. no. 9 (1994): 1414-20. Even these indexes do not capture the quality of care received, however.
146. Martin and others, "Births" (see note 5).
147. Lorraine V. Klerman and others, "A Randomized Trial of Augmented Prenatal Care for Multiple-Risk, Medicaid-Eligible African American Women," American Journal of Public Health 91, no. 1 (2001): 105-11.
148. Currie and Gruber, "Saving Babies" (see note 97);
149. Dubay and others, "Changes in Prenatal Care Timing and Low Birth Weight by Race and Socioeconomic Status" (see note 97);
150. Arnold M. Epstein and Joseph P. Newhouse, "Impact of Medicaid Expansion on Early Prenatal Care and Health Outcomes," Health Care Financing Review 19, no. 4 (1998): 85-99;
151. Nancy E. Reichman and Maryanne J. Florio, "The Effects of Enriched Prenatal Care Services on Medicaid Birth Outcomes in New Jersey," Journal of Health Economics 15, no. 4 (1996): 455-76;
152. Theodore Joyce, "Impact of Augmented Prenatal Care on Birth Outcomes of Medicaid Recipients in New York City," Journal of Health Economics 18, no. 1 (1999): 31-67.
153. Douglas Almond and Kenneth Y. Chay "The Long-Run and Intergenerational Impact of Poor Infant Health: Evidence from Cohorts Born during the Civil Rights Era" (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2003) (www.nber.org/~almond/cohorts.pdf [July 25, 2004]);
154. Anna Aizer, Adriana Lleras-Muney and Mark Stabile, "Access to Care, Provider Choice, and Racial Disparities in Infant Mortality," Working Paper 10445 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004).
155. Alexander and Korenbrot, "The Role of Prenatal Care in Preventing Low Birth Weight" (see note 72).
156. Michael C. Lu and others, "Preventing Low Birth Weight: Is Prenatal Care the Answer?" Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 13, no. 6 (2003): 362-80.
157. Paul J. Meis and others, "Prevention of Recurrent Preterm Delivery by 17 Alpha-Hydroxyprogesterone Caproate," New England Journal of Medicine 348, no. 24 (2003): 2379-85;
158. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Committee on Obstetric Practice, "Use of Progesterone to Reduce Preterm Birth," ACOG committee opinion 291, Obstetrics and Gynecology 102, no. 5 (2003):1115-16.
159. Alexander and Korenbrot, "The Role of Prenatal Care in Preventing Low Birth Weight" (see note 72);
160. Lu and others, "Preventing Low Birth Weight" (see note 104).
161. Lori Kowaleski-Jones and Greg J. Duncan, "Effects of Participation in the WIC Program on Birthweight: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth," American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 5 (2002): 799-803;
162. Nancy E. Reichman and Julien O. Teitler, "Effects of Psychosocial Risk Factors and Prenatal Interventions on Birth Weight: Evidence from New Jersey's Health Start Program," Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 35, no. 3 (2003): 130-37;
163. Marianne P. Bitler and Janet Currie, "Does WIC Work? The Effects of WIC on Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management (forthcoming).
164. Cecilia M. McCarton, Ina F. Wallace, and Forrester C. Bennett, "Early Intervention for Low Birth-Weight Premature Infants: What Can We Achieve?" Annals of Medicine 28, no. 3 (1996): 221-25.
165. Jeanne Brooks-Gunn and others, "Early Intervention in Low Birth-Weight Premature Infants: Results through Age 5 Years from the Infant Health and Development Program, "Journal of the American Medical Association 272, no. 16 (1994): 1257-62.
166. Jeanne Brooks-Gunn and others, "Enhancing the Cognitive Outcomes of Low Birth Weight, Premature Infants: For Whom Is the Intervention Most Effective?" Pediatrics 89, no. 6, part 2 (1992): 1209-15.
167. Jeanne Brooks-Gunn and others, "Enhancing the Development of Low Birth-Weight, Premature Infants: Changes in Cognition and Behavior over the First Three Years," Child Development 64, no. 3 (1993): 736-53.
168. Clancy Blair, Craig T. Ramey, and Michael J. Hardin, "Early Intervention for Low Birthweight, Premature Infants: Participation and Intellectual Development," American Journal of Mental Retardation 99, no. 5 (1995): 542-54.
169. Cecilia M. McCarton and others, "Results at Age 8 Years of Early Intervention for Low-Birth-Weight Premature Infants: The Infant Health and Development Program," Journal of the American Medical Association 277, no. 2 (1997): 126-32.
170. Jennifer L. Hill, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Jane Waldfogel, "Sustained Effects of High Participation in an Early Intervention for Low Birth-Weight Premature Infants," Developmental Psychology 39, no. 4 (2003): 730-44.
171. Thomas M. Achenbach and others, "Nine-Year Outcome of the Vermont Intervention Program for Low Birth Weight Infants," Pediatrics 91, no. 1 (1993): 45-55.
172. Dagmar Lagerberg, "Secondary Prevention in Child Health: Effects of Psychological Intervention, Particularly Home Visitation, on Children's Development and Other Outcome Variables," Acta Paediatrica 89, suppl. (2000): 43-52. This review expanded on an earlier review of randomized controlled trials of home visitation programs by including interventions that offered other forms of support than home visits and studies published after 1992.
173. See David L. Olds and Harriet Kitzman, "Review of Research on Home Visiting for Pregnant Women and Parents of Young Children," The Future of Children 3, no. 3 (1993): 53-92.
174. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Healthy People, 2010 (see note 56).