Preventing low birth weight: Is prenatal care the answer?

Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine

Volumn 13, Issue 6, 2003, Pages 362-380

  Lu, M C ^a,b   Tache, V ^a   Alexander, G R ^c,d   Kotelchuck, M ^e   Halfon, N ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

^e BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

Low birth weight; Prenatal care; Preterm birth

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; CORTICOSTEROID;

CLINICAL TRIAL; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HEALTH PROGRAM; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; META ANALYSIS; PREMATURITY; PRENATAL CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE; PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SMOKING CESSATION; STEROID THERAPY;

EID: 0038275952     PISSN: 14767058     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/jmf.13.6.362.380     Document Type: Review

References (195)

1. Mathews TJ, MacDorman MF, Menacker F. Infant mortality statistics from the 1999 period linked birth/infant death data set. National Vital Statistics Reports, vol 50, no. 4. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2002
2. McCormick MC, Brooks-Gunn J, Workman-Daniels K, et al. The health and developmental status of very low-birth-weight children at school age. J Am Med Assoc 1992;267:2204-8
3. Hack M, Flannery DJ, Schluchter M, et al. Outcomes in young adulthood for very-low-birth-weight infants. N Engl J Med 2002;346:149-57
4. Alexander GR, Kotelchuck M. Assessing the role and effectiveness of prenatal care: history, challenges, and directions for future research. Public Health Rep 2001;116:306-16
5. Eisner V, Brazie JV, Pratt MW, et al. The risk of low birthweight. Am J Public Health 1979;69:887-93
6. Taffel S. Prenatal care: United States, 1969-1975. Vital and Health Statistics, series 21, no. 33. Washington, DC: National Center for Health Statistics, 1978
7. Greenberg RS. The impact of prenatal care in different social groups. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983;145:797-801
8. Kessner DM, Singer J, Kalk CW, et al. Infant death: an analysis by maternal risk and health care. In Institute of Medicine. Contrasts in Health Status, vol 1. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1973
9. Gortmaker SL. The effects of prenatal care upon the health of the newborn. Am J Public Health 1979;69:653-60
10. Institute of Medicine. Committee to Study the Prevention of Low Birth Weight. Preventing Low Birth Weight. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1985
11. Hill IT. The role of Medicaid and other government programs in providing medical care for children and pregnant women. Future Child 1992;2:134-53
12. Huntington J, Connell FA. For every dollar spent - the cost-savings argument for prenatal care. N Engl J Med 1994;331:1303-7
13. Expert Panel on the Content of Prenatal Care. Caring for our Future: The Content of Prenatal Care. Washington, DC: Public Health Service, 1989
14. Piper JM, Mitchel EF Jr, Ray WAS. Presumptive eligibility for pregnant Medicaid enrollees: its effects on prenatal care and perinatal outcome. Am J Public Health 1994;84:1626-30
15. Kogan MD, Martin JA, Alexander GR, et al. The changing pattern of prenatal care utilization in the United States, 1981-1995, using different prenatal care indices. J Am Med Assoc 1998;279:1623-8
16. Martin JA, Hamillton BE, Ventura SJ, et al. Births: final data for 2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, vol. 51, no. 2. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2002
17. Alexander GR, Slay M. Prematurity at birth: trends, racial disparities, and epidemiology. Ment Retard Dev Disabilities Res Rev 2002;8:215-20
18. Fiscella K. Does prenatal care improve birth outcomes? A critical review. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:468-79
19. Alexander GR, Korenbrot G. The role of prenatal care in preventing low birth weight. Future Child 1995;5: 103-20
20. Lu MC, Chuan S, Tache V, et al. A Research Agenda on Obstetric and Perinatal Health Services. Washington, DC: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2002
21. Goldenberg RL. The management of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 2002;100:1020-37
22. Resnik R. Intrauterine growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:490-6
23. Alexander GR, Himes JH, Kaufman RB, et al. A United States national reference for fetal growth. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:163-8
24. Alexander GR, Kogan MD. Ethnic differences in birth outcomes: the search for answers continues. Birth 1998;25:198-201
25. Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, et al. Current methods of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process. Am J Prev Med 2001;20:21-35
26. Shiono PH, Klebanoff MA. A review of risk scoring for preterm birth. Clin Perinatol 1993;20:107-25
27. Guinn DA, Wigton TR, Owen J, et al. Prediction of preterm birth in nulliparous patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:1111-15
28. Meis PJ, Michielutte R, Peterss TJ, et al. I. Factors associated with preterm birth in Cardiff, Wales. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:597-602
29. Mercer BM, Goldenberg RL, Das A, et al. The preterm prediction study: a clinical risk assessment system. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1885-93
30. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee on Obstetric Practice. Home Uterine Activity Monitoring. Committee Opinion No. 172. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1996
31. Colton T, Kayne HL, Zhang Y. A metaanalysis of home uterine activity monitoring. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:1499-505
32. Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Randomized controlled trials of home uterine activity monitoring: a review and critique. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:137-42
33. US Preventive Services Task Force. Home uterine activity monitoring for preterm labor. J Am Med Assoc 1993;270:371-6
34. Wapner RJ, Cotton DB, Artal R, et al. A randomized multicenter trial assessing a home uterine activity monitoring device used in the absence of daily nursing contact. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;172:1026-34
35. Brown HL, Britton KA, Brizendine EJ, et al. A randomized comparison of home uterine activity monitoring in the outpatient management of women treated for preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180:798-805
36. Dyson DC, Danbe KH, Bamber JA, et al. Monitoring women at risk for preterm labor. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:15-19
37. The Collaborative Home Uterine Monitoring Study Group (CHUMSS). A mutlicenter randomized controlled trial of home uterine monitoring: active versus sham device. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173:1120-7
38. Buekens P, Alexander S, Boutsen M, et al. Randomised controlled trial of routine cervical examinations in pregnancy. European Community Collaborative Study Group on Prenatal Screening. Lancet 1994;344:841-4
39. Iams JD, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, et al. The preterm prediction study: can low-risk women destined for spontaneous preterm birth be identified? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:652-5
40. Vendittelli F, Volumenie JL. Transvaginal ultrasonography examination of the uterine cervix in hospitalised women undergoing preterm labour. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2000;90:3-11
41. Guzman ER, Ananth CV. Cervical length and spontaneous prematurity: laying the foundation for future interventional randomized trials for the short cervix. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2001;18:195
42. Chien PF, Khan KS, Ogston S, et al. The diagnostic accuracy of cervico-vaginal fetal fibronectin in predicting preterm delivery: an overview. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:436-44
43. Faron G, Boulvain M, Irion O, et al. Prediction of preterm delivery by fetal fibronectin: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:153-8
44. Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, Meis PJ, et al. The preterm prediction study: fetal fibronectin testing and spontaneous preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:643-8
45. Honest H, Bachmann LM, Gupta JK, et al. Accuracy of cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin test in predicting risk of spontaneous preterm birth: systematic review. Br Med J 2002;325:301
46. McGregor JA, Jackson GM, Lachelin GC, et al. Salivary estriol as risk assessment for preterm labor: a prospective trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:1337-42
47. Heine R, McGregor J, Dullien V. Accuracy of salivary estriol testing compared to traditional risk factor assessment in predicting preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180:S214-18
48. McLean M, Bisits A, Davies J, et al. Predicting risk of preterm delivery by second-trimester measurement of maternal plasma corticotropin-releasing hormone and alpha-fetoprotein concentrations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:207-15
49. Leung TN, Chung TK, Madsen G, et al. Elevated mid-trimester maternal corticotrophin-releasing hormone levels in pregnancies that delivered before 34 weeks. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1999;106:1041-6
50. Hobel CJ, Dunkel-Schetter C, Roesch SC, et al. Maternal plasma corticocotropin-releasing hormone associated with stress at 20 weeks' gestation in pregnancies ending in preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180:S257-63
51. Goffinet F, Maillard F, Fulla Y, et al. Biochemical markers (without markers of infection) of the risk of preterm delivery: implication for clinical practice. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2001;94:59-68
52. Goldenberg RL, Iams JD, Mercer BM, et al. The Preterm Prediction Study: toward a multiple-marker test for spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obster Gynecol 2001; 185:643-51
53. Moawad AH, Goldenberg RL, Mercer B, et al. The Preterm Prediction Study: the value of serum alkaline phosphatase, alpha-fetoprotein, plasma corticotropin-releasing hormone, and other serum markers for the prediction of spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:990-6
54. Hall M, Chng PK, MacGillivray I. Is routine antenatal care worthwhile? Lancet 1980;2:78-80
55. Rosenberg K, Grant JM, Hepburn M. Antenatal detection of growth retardation: actual practice in a large maternity hospital. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1982;89:12-15
56. Rogers MS, Needham PG. Evaluation of fundal height measurement in antenatal care. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynecol 1985;25:87-90
57. Bailey SM, Sarmandal P, Grant JM. A comparison of three methods of assessing inter-observer variation applied to measurement of the symphysis-fundal height. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1989;96:1266-71
58. Belizan JM, Villar J, Nardin JC, et al. Diagnosis of IUGR by a simple clinical method: measurement of fundal height. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978;131:643-6
59. Calvert JP, Crean EE, Newcombe RG, et al. Antenatal screening by measurement of symphysis-fundus height. Br Med J 1982;285:846
60. Crattingius S, Axelsson O, Lindmark G. Symphysis-fundus measurements and intrauterine growth retardation. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1984;335:63
61. Quaranta P, Curell R, Redman CWG, et al. Prediction of small-for-dates infants by measurement of symphysial-fundal-height. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1981;88:115
62. Westin B. Gradiogram and fetal growth. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1977;273:56
63. Lindhard A, Nielsen PV, Mouritsen LA, et al. The implications of introducing the symphyseal-fundal height-measurement. A prospective randomized controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:675-80
64. Neilson JP. Symphysis-fundal height measurement in pregnancy (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
65. Villar J, Belizan JM. The evaluation of the methods used in the diagnosis of intrauterine growth retardation. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1986:187-99
66. Yoshida S, Unno N, Kagawa H, et al. Prenatal detection of a high-risk group for intrauterine growth restriction based on sonographic fetal biometry. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2000;68:225-32
67. Witter FR, Petri M. Antenatal detection of intrauterine growth restriction in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2000;71:67-8
68. Owen P, Burton K, Ogston S, et al. Using unconditional and conditional standard deviation scores of fetal abdominal area measurements in the prediction of intra-uterine growth restriction. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2000;16:439-44
69. Liang RI, Chang FM, Yao BL, et al. Predicting birth weight by fetal upper-arm volume with use of three-dimensional ultrasonography. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:632-8
70. Chang FM, Liang RI, Ko HC, et al. Three-dimensional ultrasound-assessed fetal thigh volumetry in predicting birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:331-9
71. Schild RL, Fimmers R, Hansmann M. Fetal weight estimation by three-dimensional ultrasound. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2000;16:445-52
72. Lin CC, Santolaya-Forgas J. Current concepts of fetal growth restriction. I. Causes, classification, and pathophysiology. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:1044-55
73. Papageorghiou AT, Yu CKH, Cicero S, et al. Second-trimester uterine artery Doppler screening in unselected populations: a review. J Matern Fetal Neonat Med 2002;12:78-88
74. Papageorghiou AT, Yu CKH, Bindra R, et al. Multicenter screening for pre-eclampsia and fetal growth restriction by tranvaginal uterine artery Doppler at 23 weeks of gestation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2001;18:441-9
75. Hill WC. Where are we now in screening patients for preterm delivery? Obstet Gynecol Surv 2002;57:133-5
76. Kramer MS, Seguin L, Lydon J, et al. Socio-economic disparities in pregnancy outcome: why do the poor fare so poorly? Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2000;14:194-210
77. O'Campo P, Davis MV, Gielen AC. Smoking cessation interventions for pregnant women: review and future directions. Semin Perinatol 1995;19:279-85
78. Lumley J, Oliver S, Waters E. Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
79. DiClemente CC, Dolan-Mullen P, Windsor RA. The process of pregnancy smoking cessation: implications for interventions. Tobacco Control 2000;9(Suppl):6-21
80. Secker-Walker RH, Solomon LJ, Flynn BS, et al. Smoking relapse prevention counseling during prenatal and early postnatal care. Am J Prey Med 1995;11:86-93
81. General Accounting Office. Early Interventions: Federal Investments Like WIC Can Produce Savings. Washington DC: US General Accounting Office, 1992
82. Abrams B. Preventing low birth weight: does WIC work? A review of evaluations of the special supplemental food program for women, infants, and children. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993;678:306-16
83. Besharov DJ, Germanis P. Evaluating WIC. Eval Rev 2000;24:123-90
84. Villar J, Gülmezoglu AM, de Onis M. Nutritional and antimicrobial interventions to prevent preterm birth: an overview of randomized controlled trials. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1998;53:575-85
85. Makrides M, Crowther CA. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
86. Olsen SF, Secher NJ, Tabor A, et al. Randomised clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies. Fish Oil Trials In Pregnancy (FOTIP) Team. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2000;107:382-95
87. de Onis M, Villar J, Gulmezoglu M. Nutritional interventions to prevent intrauterine growth retardation: evidence from randomized controlled trials. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52(Suppl 1):S83-93
88. Kramer MS. Balanced protein/energy supplementation in pregnancy. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002b. Oxford: Update Software
89. Simpson JL. Are physical activity and employment related to preterm birth and low birth weight? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:1231-8
90. Mozurkewich EL, Luke B, Avni M, et al. Working conditions and adverse pregnancy outcome: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95:623-35
91. Newman RB, Gill PJ, Wittreich P, et al. Maternal perception of prelabor uterine activity. Obstet Gynecol 1986; 68:765-9
92. Collaborative Group on Preterm Birth Prevention. Multicenter randomized, controlled trial of a preterm birth prevention program. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;169: 352-66
93. Hueston WJ, Knox MA, Eilers G, et al. The effectiveness of preterm-birth prevention educational programs for high-risk women: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 86:705-12
94. Goldenberg RL, Rouse DJ. Prevention of premature birth. N Engl J Med 1998;339:313-20
95. Crowther CA. Hospitalisation and bed rest for multiple pregnancy. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
96. Saunders MC, Dick JS, Brown I McL, et al. The effects of hospital admission for bed rest on the duration of twin pregnancy: a randomised trial. Lancet 1985;2:793-5
97. Stan C, Boulvain M, Hirsbrunner-Amagbaly P, et al. Hydration for treatment of preterm labour. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
98. Drakeley AJ, Roberts D, Alfirevic Z. Cervical stitch (cerclage) for preventing pregnancy loss in women. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2003. Oxford: Update Software
99. MRC/RCOG Working Party on Cervical Cerclage. Final report of the Medical Research Council/Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists multicentre randomized trial of cervical cerclage. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993;100;516-23
100. Keirse MJ. Progestogen administration in pregnancy may prevent preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:149-54
101. Gibbs RS, Romero R, Hillier SL, et al. A review of premature birth and subclinical infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1515-28
102. Smaill F. Antibiotics for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002a. Oxford: Update Software
103. Hauth JC, Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, et al. Reduced incidence of preterm delivery with metronidazole and erythromycin in women with bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1732-6
104. Morales WJ, Schorr S, Albritton J. Effect of me tronidazole in patients with preterm birth in preceding pregnancy and bacterial vaginosis: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:345-7
105. Carey JC, Klebanoff MA, Hauth JC, et al. Metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery in pregnant women with asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:534-40
106. King J, Flenady V. Antibiotics for preterm labour with intact membranes. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
107. Gyetvai K, Hannah ME, Hodnett ED, et al. Tocolytics for preterm labor: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 1999;94:869-77
108. National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Development Conference. Effect of corticosteroids for fetal maturation on perinatal outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:246
109. King JF, Flenady VJ, Papatsonis DNM, et al. Calcium channel blockers for inhibiting preterm labour. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
110. Crowther CA, Moore V. Magnesium for preventing preterm birth after threatened preterm labour. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
111. Mittendorf R, Pryde PG. An overview of the possible relationship between antenatal pharmacologic magnesium and cerebral palsy. J Perinat Med 2000;28:286-93
112. Mittendorf R, Dambrosia J, Pryde PG, et al. Association between the use of antenatal magnesium sulfate in preterm labor and adverse health outcomes in infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:1111-18
113. Duckitt K, Thornton S. Nitric oxide donors for the treatment of preterm labour. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
114. Crowley P. Prophylactic corticosteroids for preterm birth. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002a. Oxford: Update Software
115. United States Antenatal Steroid Trial, Collaborative Group on Antenatal Steroid Therapy. Effects of antenatal dexamethasone administration in the infant: long-term follow-up. J Pediatr 1984;104:259-67
116. Smolders-de Haas H, Neuvel J, Schmand B, et al. Physical development and medical history of children who were treated antenatally with corticosteroids to prevent respiratory distress syndrome: a 10- to 12-year follow-up. Pediatrics 1990;86:65-70
117. MacArthur BA, Howie RN, Dezoete JA, et al. School progress and cognitive development of 6-year-old children whose mothers were treated antenatally with betamethasone. Pediatrics 1982;70:99-105
118. Crowther CA, Alfirevic Z, Haslam RR. Prenatal thyrotropin-releasing hormone for preterm birth. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
119. Leitich H, Egarter C, Husslein P, et al. A meta-analysis of low dose aspirin for the prevention of intrauterine growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:450-9
120. Sibai BM, Caritis SN, Thom E, et al. Prevention of pre-eclampsia with low-dose aspirin in healthy, nulliparous pregnant women. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1213-18
121. CLASP (Collaborative Low-Dose Aspirin Study in Pregnancy) Collaborative Group. CLASP: a randomised trial of low-dose aspirin for the prevention and treatment of pre-eclampsia among 9364 pregnant women. Lancet 1994;343:619-29
122. Caritis S, Sibai J, Hauth MD, et al. Low-dose aspirin to prevent preeclampsia in women at high risk. N Engl J Med 1998;338:701-5
123. Gülmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ. Bed rest in hospital for suspected impaired fetal growth. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
124. Laurin J, Persson P-H. The effect of bed rest in hospital on fetal outcome in pregnancies complicated by intra-uterine growth retardation. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1987; 66:407-11
125. Gülmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ. Maternal oxygen administration for suspected impaired fetal growth. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
126. Gülmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ. Plasma volume expansion for suspected impaired fetal growth. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
127. Thacker SB, Berkelman RL. Assessing the diagnostic accuracy and efficacy of selected antepartum fetal surveillance techniques. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1986;41:121-41
128. Pattison N, McCowan L. Cardiotocography for antepartum fetal assessment. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
129. Alfirevic Z, Neilson JP. Biophysical profile for fetal assessment in high risk pregnancies. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002b. Oxford: Update Software
130. Neilson JP, Alfirevic Z. Doppler ultrasound for fetal assessment in high risk pregnancies. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
131. Paarlberg KM, Vingerhoets JJM, Passchier J, et al. Psychosocial factors and pregnancy outcome: a review with emphasis on methodological issues. J Psychosom Res 1995;39:653-95
132. Wilkinson DS, Korenbrot CC, Greene J. A performance indicator of psychosocial services in enhanced prenatal care of Medicaid-eligible women. Matern Child Health J 1998;2:131-43
133. Hodnett ED. Support during pregnancy for women at increased risk of low birthweight babies. In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2002. Oxford: Update Software
134. Blondel B, Mellier G. Home visits during pregnancy. Review of randomized studies and further questions. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 1996;25:515-22
135. Kogan MD, Alexander GR, Kotelchuck M, et al. Relation of the content of prenatal care to the risk of low birth weight. Maternal reports of health behavior advice and initial prenatal care procedures. J Am Med Assoc 1994;271:1340-5
136. Hobel CJ, Dunkel-Schetter C, Roesch S. Maternal stress as a signal to the fetus. Prenat Neonat Med 1998;3:116-20
137. Dudley DJ. Immunoendocrinology of preterm labor: the link between corticotropin-releasing hormone and inflammation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180:S251-6
138. Gomez R, Romero R, Ghezzi F, et al. The fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179:194-202
139. Wadhwas PD, Culhane JF, Rauh V, et al. Stress and preterm birth: neuroendocrine, immune/inflammatory, and vascular mechanisms. Matern Child Health J 2001; 5:119-25
140. Roberts AK, Monzon-Bordonaba F, Van Deerlin PG, et al. Association of polymorphism within the promoter of the tumor necrosis factor alpha gene with increased risk of preterm premature rupture of fetal membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180:1297-302
141. Romero R, Mazor M, Sepulveda W, et al. Tumor necrosis factor in preterm and term labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1576-87
142. Dudley DJ, Collmer D, Mitchell MD, et al. Detection of inflammatory cytokine mRNA in human gestational tissues utilizing polymerase chain reaction: implications for term and preterm labor. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1996;3:328-35
143. Wang XB, Chen D, Niu T, et al. Genetic susceptibility to benzene and shortened gestation: evidence of gene-environment interaction. Am J Epidemiol 2000;152:701-3
144. Wang X, Zuckerman B, Pearson C, et al. Maternal cigarette smoking, metabolic gene polymorphism, and infant birth weight. J Am Med Assoc 2002;287:195-202
145. Marsal K. Intrauterine growth restriction. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2002;14:127-35
146. Chard T. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in normal and abnormal fetal growth: a review. Growth Regul 1994;4:91-100
147. Guidice LC, deZegher F, Gargosky SE, et al. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in the term and preterm human fetus and neonate with normal and extremes of intrauterine growth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:1548-55
148. Parra MC, Lees C, Mann GE, et al. Vasoactive mediator release by fetal endothelial cells in intrauterine growth restriction and preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:497-502
149. McQueen J, Kingdom JC, Connell JM, et al. Fetal endothelin levels and placental and vascular endothelin receptors in intrauterine growth retardation. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:992-8
150. Friedman SA. Preeclampsia: a review of the role of prostaglandins. Obstet Gynecol 1988;71:122-37
151. Kupferminc MJ, Eldor A, Steinman N, et al. Increased frequency of genetic thrombophilia in women with complications of pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1999;340: 9-13
152. Lockwood CJ. Inherited thrombophilias in pregnant patients: detection and treatment paradigm. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:333-41
153. McGregor JA, Allen KG, Harris MA, et al. The omega-3 story: nutritional prevention of preterm birth and other adverse pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2001;56:S1-13
154. Wadhwa PD, Dunkel-Schetter C, Chicz-DeMet A, et al. Prenatal psychosocial factors and the neuroendocrine axis in human pregnancy. Psychosom Med 1996;58:432-46
155. Infante JR, Torres-Avisbal M, Pinel P. Catecholamine levels in practitioners of the transcendental meditation technique. Physiol Behav 2001;72:141-6
156. MacLean CR, Walton KG, Wenneberg SR, et al. Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on adaptive mechanisms: changes in hormone levels and responses to stress after 4 months of practice. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997;22:277-95
157. Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, Andrews WW. Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:1500-7
158. Khong TY, De Wolf F, Robertson WB, et al. Inadequate maternal vascular response to placentation in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia and by small-forgestational-age infants. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1986;93: 1049-59
159. Loke YW, King A. Immunology of human placental implantation: clinical implications of our current understanding. Mol Med Today 1997;4:153-9
160. Korenbrot CC, Steinberg A, Bender C, et al. Pre-conception care: a systematic review. Matern Child Health J 2002;6:75-88
161. Lu MC, Halfon N. Racial and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes: a life-course perspective. Matern Child Health J 2003;7:13-30
162. Barker D, Eriksson J, Forsen T, et al. Fetal origins of adult disease: strength of effects and biological basis. Int J Epidemiol 2002;31:1235-9
163. Halfon N, Hochstein M. Life course health development: an integrated framework for developing health, policy, and research. Milbank Q 2002;80:433-79
164. Seckl JR. Physiologic programming of the fetus. Emerging Concepts Perinat Endocrinol 1998;25:939-62
165. Hertzman C. The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Ann NY Acad Sci 1999;896:85-95
166. Wadhwa PD. Prenatal stress and life-span development. In Friedman HS, ed. Encyclopedia of Mental Health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998:265-80
167. Soumi SJ. Early determinants of behaviour: evidence from primate studies. Br Med Bull 1997;53:170-84
168. Meaney MJ, Aitken S, Sharma S, et al. Postnatal handling increases hippocampal type II glucocorticoid receptors and enhances adrenocortical negative-feedback efficacy in the rat. J Neuroendocrinol 1989;5:597-604
169. Coe CL. Psychosocial factors and psychoneuro-immunology within a lifespan perspective. In Keating DP, Hertzman C, eds. Developmental Health and the Wealth of Nations: Social, Biological and Educational Dynamics. New York: Guilford Press, 1999:201-19
170. Emanuel I. Invited commentary: an assessment of maternal intergenerational factors in pregnancy outcome. Am J Epidemiol 1997;146:820-5
171. McEwen BS. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med 1998;338:171-9
172. Sapolsky RM. Social subordinance as a marker of hypercortisolism: some unexpected subtleties. Ann NY Acad Sci 1995;771:626-39
173. Kristenson M, Kucinskien Z, Bergdahl B, et al. Increased psychosocial strain in Lithuanian versus Swedish men: the LiVicorida study. Psychosom Med 1998;60:277-82
174. Sapolsky RM, Krey P, McEwen B. Glucocorticoid-sensitive hippocampal neurons are involved in terminating the adrenocortical stress-response. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1984;81:6174
175. Chrousos GP. Stress response and immune function: clinical implications. Ann NY Acad Sci 2000;917:38-67
176. Geronimus AT. Black/white differences in the relationship of maternal age to birthweight: a population-based test of the weathering hypothesis. Soc Sci Med 1996;42:589-97
177. Chavkin W, St Clair D. Beyond prenatal care: a comprehensive vision of reproductive health. J Am Med Wom Assoc 1990;45:55-7
178. Collins JWJ, David RJ, Symons R, et al. African-American mothers' perception of their residential environment, stressful life events, and very low birthweight. Epidemiology 1998;9:286-9
179. Collins JWJ, David RJ, Symons R, et al. Low-income African-American mothers' perception of exposure to racial discrimination and infant birth weight. Epidemiology 2000;11:337-9
180. Polednak AP. Trends in urban black infant mortality, by degree of residential segregation. Am J Public Health 1996;86:723-6
181. LaVeist TA. Segregation, poverty, and empowerment: health consequences for African Americans. Milbank Q 1993;71:41-64
182. Bove F, Shim Y, Zeitz P. Drinking water contaminants and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a review. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110(Suppl 1):61-74
183. Graves CG, Matanoski GM, Tardiff RG. Weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products: a critical review. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2001;34:103-24
184. Ritz B, Yu F, Chapa G, et al. Effect of air pollution on preterm birth among children born in Southern California between 1989 and 1993. Epidemiology 2000;11:502-11
185. Maisonet M, Bush TJ, Correa A, et al. Relation between ambient air pollution and low birth weight in the Northeastern United States. Environ Health Perspect 2001; 109(Suppl 3):351-6
186. Bobak M. Outdoor air pollution, low birth weight, and prematurity. Environ Health Perspect 2000;108:173-6
187. Emmons KM. Health behaviors in a social context. In Berkman LF, Kawachi I, eds. Social Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000:242-66
188. Hogan VK, Njorge T, Durant TM, et al. Eliminating disparities in perinatal outcomes - lessons learned. Matern Child Health J 2001;5:135-40
189. Ebrahim SH, Floyd RL, Merritt RK, et al. Trends in pregnancy-related smoking rates in the United States, 1987-1996. J Am Med Assoc 2000;283:361-6
190. Minkler M. Using participatory action research to build healthy communities. Public Health Rep 2000;15: 191-7
191. Grason HA, Hutchins JE, Silver GB, eds. Charting a Course for the Future of Women's and Perinatal Health. Baltimore, MD: Women's and Children's Health Policy Center, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, 1999
192. O'Campo P, Rojas-Smith L. Welfare reform and women's health: review of the literature and implications for state policy. J Public Health Policy 1998;19:420-46
193. Buckens P. Is there an indirect effect of European prenatal care policies on preterm births? Prenat Neonat Med 1998;3:145-6
194. Grimes DA. The morbidity and mortality of pregnancy: still risky business. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170: 1489-94
195. Kogan MD, Alexander GR, Jack BW, et al. The association between adequacy of prenatal care utilization and subsequent pediatric utilization in the United States. Pediatrics 1998;102:25-30