Understanding posttraumatic stress: Theory, reflections, context and future

Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 423-441

  Joseph, Stephen ^a   Williams, Ruth ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Adversarial growth; Formulation; Organismic valuing; Posttraumatic growth; Psychosocial; PTSD

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; CHRONICITY; DISEASE SEVERITY; EMOTIONAL STRESS; EXERCISE; EXPERIENCE; HUMAN; INDIVIDUALITY; LIFE EVENT; PERSONALITY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RELAXATION TRAINING; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL SUPPORT;

EID: 27644596276     PISSN: 13524658     EISSN: 14691833     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1352465805002328     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Abraido-Lanza, A. F., Guier, C. and Colon, R. M. (1998). Psychological thriving among Latinas with chronic illness. Journal of Social Issues, 54, 405-424.
2. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P. and Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74.
3. American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edition). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
4. American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edition-revised). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
5. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
6. Armeli, S., Gunthert, K. C. and Cohen, L. H. (2001). Stressor appraisals, coping, and post-event outcomes: the dimensionality and antecedents of stress-related growth. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 366-395.
7. Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: International University Press.
8. Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T. and Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670-686.
9. Brewin, C. R. and Holmes, E. A. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 339-376.
10. Brown, R. and Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5, 73-99.
11. Bryant, B., Mayou, R., Wiggs, L., Ehlers, A. and Stores, G. (2004). Psychological consequences of road traffic accidents for children and their mothers. Psychological Medicine, 34, 335-346.
12. Chemtob, C., Roitblat, H. L., Hamada, R. S., Carlson, J. G. and Twentyman, C. T. (1988). A cognitive action theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 2, 253-275.
13. Christopher, M. (2004). A broader view of trauma: a biopsychosocial- evolutionary view of the role of traumatic stress response in the emergence of pathology and/or growth. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 75-98.
14. Dalgleish, T. (2004). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder: the evolution of multi-representational theorizing. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 228-260.
15. Dalgleish, T., Joseph, S., Thrasher, S., Tranah, T. and Yule, W. (1996). Crisis support following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: a longitudinal perspective. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 833-846.
16. Dalgleish, T., Joseph, S. and Yule, W. (2000). The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: lessons from the first six years. Behavior Modification, 24, 673-699.
17. Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M. and Ehlers, A. (1997). Cognitive factors in persistent versus recovered post-traumatic stress disorder after physical or sexual assault: a pilot study. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 25, 147-159.
18. Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M. and Ehlers, A. (1999). Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual abuse. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 809-829.
19. Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M. and Ehlers, A. (2001). A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1063-1084.
20. Ehlers, A. and Clark, D. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
21. Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Dunmore, E., Jaycox, L. H., Meadows, E. A. and Foa, E. B. (1998). Predicting response to exposure treatment in PTSD: the role of mental defeat and alienation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 457-471.
22. Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus, F., Fennell, M., Herbert, C. and Mayou, R. (2003). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1024-1032.
23. Ehlers, A., Maercker, A. and Boos, A. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder following political imprisonment: the role of mental defeat, alienation, and perceived permanent change. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 45-55.
24. Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A. and Bryant, B. (1998). Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 508-519.
25. Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A. and Bryant, B. (2003). Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in children: results of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1-10.
26. Ehlers, A. and Steil, R. (1995). Maintenance of intrusive memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: a cognitive approach. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 217-249.
27. Foa, E. B. and Rothbaum, B. O. (1998). Treating the Trauma of Rape: cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
28. Folkman, S. and Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 21, 219-239.
29. Folkman, S. and Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150-170.
30. Folkman, S. and Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Coping as a mediator of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 466-475.
31. Halligan, S. L., Michael, T., Clark, D. M. and Ehlers, A. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: the role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 419-431.
32. Horowitz, M. (1986). Stress Response Syndromes. Northville, NJ: Jason Aronson.
33. Hodgkinson, P. E., Joseph, S., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1993). Viewing human remains following disaster: helpful or harmful? Medicine, Science, and the Law, 33, 197-202.
34. Hodgkinson, P. E., Joseph, S., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1995). Measuring grief after sudden violent death: Zeebrugge bereaved at 30 months. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 805-808.
35. Janoff-Bulman, R. (1985). The aftermath of victimization: rebuilding shattered assumptions. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its Wake: the study and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (pp. 15-35). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
36. Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered Assumptions: toward a new psychology of trauma. New York: The Free Press.
37. Joseph, S. (1999). Attributional processes, coping, and post-traumatic stress disorders. In W. Yule. (Ed.), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders: concepts and therapy (pp. 51-70). Chichester: Wiley.
38. Joseph, S., Andrews, B., Williams, R. and Yule, W. (1992). Crisis support and psychiatric symptomatology in survivors of the Jupiter cruise ship disaster. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 63-73.
39. Joseph, S., Brewin, C. R., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1991). Causal attributions and psychiatric symptoms in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 542-546.
40. Joseph, S., Brewin, C. R., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1993). Causal attributions and post-traumatic symptoms in adolescent survivors of disaster. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 247-253.
41. Joseph, S., Dalgleish, T., Thrasher, S. and Yule, W. (1997). Impulsivity and post-traumatic stress. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 279-281.
42. Joseph, S., Dalgleish, T., Thrasher, S., Yule, W., Williams, R. and Hodgkinson, P. (1996). Chronic emotional processing in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: the relationship of intrusion and avoidance at 3 years to distress at 5 years. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 357-360.
43. Joseph, S., Dalgleish, T., Williams, R., Thrasher, S., Yule, W. and Hodgkinson, P. (1997). Attitudes towards emotional expression and post-traumatic stress in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 133-138.
44. Joseph, S., Hodgkinson, P., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1993). Guilt and distress 30 months after the capsize of the Herald of Free Enterprise. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 271-273.
45. Joseph, S. and Linley, P. A. (in press). Positive adjustment to threatening events: an organismic valuing theory of growth through adversity. Review of General Psychology.
46. Joseph, S., Linley, P. A., Andrews, L., Harris, G., Howle, B., Woodward, C. and Shevlin, M. (2005). Assessing positive and negative changes in the aftermath of adversity: psychometric evaluation of the Changes in Outlook Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 17, 70-80.
47. Joseph, S., Williams, R. and Yule, W. (1992). Crisis support, attribution style, coping style, and post-traumatic symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1249-1251.
48. Joseph, S., Williams, R. and Yule, W. (1993). Changes in outlook following disaster: the preliminary development of a measure to assess positive and negative responses. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 271-279.
49. Joseph, S., Williams, R. and Yule, W. (1995). Psychosocial perspectives on post-traumatic stress. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 515-544.
50. Joseph, S., Williams, R. and Yule, W. (1997). Understanding Post-Traumatic Stress: a psychosocial perspective on PTSD and treatment. Wiley: Chichester.
51. Joseph, S., Williams, R., Yule, W. and Hodgkinson, P. (1993). Increased substance use in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 66, 185-191.
52. Joseph, S., Williams, R., Yule, W. and Walker, A. (1992). Factor analysis of the Impact of Event Scale with survivors of two disasters at sea. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 693-697.
53. Joseph, S., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1993). Post-traumatic stress: attributional aspects. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 501-513.
54. Joseph, S., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1994). The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: the relationship of intrusion and avoidance to subsequent depression and anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 115-117.
55. Joseph, S., Yule, W. and Williams, R. (1995). Emotional processing in survivors of the Jupiter cruise ship disaster. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 187-192.
56. Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R. and Hodgkinson, P. (1993). The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: measuring post-traumatic symptoms 30 months on. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 327-331.
57. Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R. and Hodgkinson, P. (1994). Correlates of post-traumatic stress at 30 months: the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 521-524.
58. Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R. and Andrews, B. (1993). Crisis support in the aftermath of disaster: a longitudinal perspective. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 177-185.
59. Lazarus, R. S. and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York: Springer.
60. Linley, P. A. and Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: a review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 11-21.
61. Linley, P. A. and Joseph, S. (2005). The human capacity for growth through adversity. American Psychologist, 60, 262-264.
62. Maddux, J. E., Snyder, C. R. and Lopez, S. J. (2004). Toward a positive clinical psychology: Deconstructing the illness ideology and constructing an ideology of human strengths and potential. In P. A. Linley and S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive Psychology in Practice (pp. 320-334). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
63. McMillen, J. C. and Fisher, R. H. (1998). The perceived benefits scales: measuring perceived positive life changes after negative events. Social Work Research, 22, 173-187.
64. O'Leary, V. E. and Ickovics, J. R. (1995). Resilience and thriving in response to challenge: an opportunity for a paradigm shift in women's health. Women's Health: Research on Gender, Behavior, and Policy, 1, 121-142.
65. Park, C. L. (1998). Stress-related growth and thriving through coping: the roles of personality and cognitive processes. Journal of Social Issues, 54, 267-277.
66. Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H. and Murch, R. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress-related growth. Journal of Personality, 64, 71-105.
67. Peterson, C. and Seligman, M. E. P. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: theory and evidence. Psychological Review, 91, 347-374.
68. Rachman, S. (1980). Emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18, 51-60.
69. Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: a study of a science, Vol. 3: Formulations of the person and the social context (pp. 184-256). New York: McGraw-Hill.
70. Rogers, C. R. (1963). The actualizing tendency in relation to "motives" and to consciousness. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 11 (1-24). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
71. Schaefer, J. A. and Moos, R. H. (1992). Life crises and personal growth. In B. N. Carpenter (Ed.), Personal Coping: theory, research and application (pp. 149-170). Westport, CT: Praeger.
72. Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: on depression, development, and death. New York: Freeman.
73. Solomon, Z., Mikulincer, M. and Avitzur, E. (1988). Coping, locus of control, social support, and combat related posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 279-285.
74. Solomon, Z., Mikulincer, M. and Benbenishty, R. (1989). Locus of control and combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: the intervening role of battle intensity, threat appraisal and coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 131-144.
75. Solomon, Z., Mikulincer, M. and Hobfoll, S. E. (1986). Effects of social support and battle intensity on loneliness and breakdown during combat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1269-1276.
76. Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events: a theory of cognitive adaptation. American Psychologist, 41, 1161-1173.
77. Tedeschi, R. G. and Calhoun, L. G. (1995). Trauma and Transformation: growing in the aftermath of suffering. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
78. Tedeschi, R. G. and Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 455-471.
79. Tedeschi, R. G. and Calhoun, L. G. (2004a). Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 1-18.
80. Tedeschi, R. G. and Calhoun, L. G. (2004b). A clinical approach to posttraumatic growth. In P. A. Linley and S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive Psychology in Practice (pp. 405-419). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
81. Tedeschi, R. G., Park, C. L. and Calhoun, I. G. (Eds.) (1998). Posttraumatic Growth: positive changes in the aftermath of crisis. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
82. Tooby, J. and Cosmides, L. (1990). The past explains the present: emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. Ethology and Sociobiology, 11, 375-424.
83. Waysman, M., Schwarzwald, J. and Solomon, Z. (2001). Hardiness: an examination of its relationship with positive and negative long term changes following trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 531-548.
84. Williams, R. M., Hodgkinson, P., Joseph, S. and Yule, W. (1995). Attitudes to emotion, crisis support and distress 30 months after the capsize of a passenger ferry. Crisis Intervention, 1, 209-214.
85. Williams, R. and Joseph, S. (1999). Conclusions: an integrative psychosocial model of PTSD. In Yule, W. (Ed.), (1999). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders: concepts and therapy. Chichester: Wiley.
86. Williams, R. M., Joseph, S. and Yule, W. (1994). The role of avoidance in coping with disasters: a study of survivors of the capsize of the Herald of Free Enterprise. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 1, 87-94.
87. Wright, D. and Gaskell, G. (1992). The construction and function of vivid memories. In M. A, Conway, D. C. Rubin, H. Spinnler and W. A. Wagenaar (Eds.), Theoretical Perspectives on Autiobiographical Memory (pp. 275-292). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
88. Yule, W. (Ed.), (1999). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders: concepts and therapy. Chichester: Wiley.
89. Yule, W., Ten Bruggencate, S. and Joseph, S. (1994). Principal components analysis of the impact of event Scale in adolescents who survived a shipping disaster. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 685-691.