The neuropsychology of ventral prefrontal cortex: Decision-making and reversal learning

Brain and Cognition

Volumn 55, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 41-53

  Clark, L ^a   Cools, R ^a   Robbins, T W ^a  

^a University of Cambridge   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Addiction; Basal ganglia; Orbitofrontal; Parkinson's disease; Psychopathy; Risk taking

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; BROMOCRIPTINE; DEXAMPHETAMINE; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; DOPAMINE 3 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; FENFLURAMINE; HALOPERIDOL; LEVODOPA; ONDANSETRON; RACLOPRIDE; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN 3 ANTAGONIST; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BRAIN CORTEX LESION; BRAIN FUNCTION; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DECISION MAKING; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; HUMAN; IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDER; IMPULSIVENESS; LEARNING; LEARNING DISORDER; LONG TERM CARE; MEMORY DISORDER; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PARKINSON DISEASE; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK; SPATIAL MEMORY; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; TASK PERFORMANCE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VISUAL DISCRIMINATION; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

EID: 2342650813     PISSN: 02782626     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00284-7     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Alexander G.E., DeLong M.R., Strick P.L. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience. 9:1986;357-381
2. Anderson S.W., Bechara A., Damasio H., Tranel D., Damasio A.R. Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience. 2:1999;1032-1037
3. Annett L.E., McGregor A., Robbins T.W. The effects of ibotenic acid lesions of the nucleus accumbens on spatial learning and extinction in the rat. Behavioral Brain Research. 31:1989;231-242
4. Arnsten A.F. Catecholamine modulation of prefrontal cortical cognitive function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2:1998;436-447
5. Arnsten A.F., Lin C.H., Van Dyck C.H., Stanhope K.J. The effects of 5-HT3 receptor antagonists on cognitive performance in aged monkeys. Neurobiology of Aging. 18:1997;21-28
6. Barnes J.M., Costall B., Coughlan J., Domeney A.M., Gerrard P.A., Kelly M.E., Naylor R.J., Onaivi E.S., Tomkins D.M., Tyers M.B. The effects of ondansetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, on cognition in rodents and primates. Pharmacology and Biochemistry of Behavior. 35:1990;955-962
7. Bechara A., Damasio H. Decision-making and addiction (part I): Impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. Neuropsychologia. 40:2002;1675-1689
8. Bechara A., Damasio A.R., Damasio H., Anderson S.W. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition. 50:1994;7-15
9. Bechara A., Damasio H., Damasio A.R., Lee G.P. Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. Journal of Neuroscience. 19:1999;5473-5481
10. Bechara A., Damasio H., Tranel D., Anderson S.W. Dissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience. 18:1998;428-437
11. Bechara A., Tranel D., Damasio H. Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain. 123:2000;2189-2202
12. Bechara A., Tranel D., Damasio H., Damasio A.R. Failure to respond autonomically to anticipated future outcomes following damage to prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex. 6:1996;215-225
13. Berns G.S., McClure S.M., Pagnoni G., Montague P.R. Predictability modulates human brain response to reward. Journal of Neuroscience. 21:2001;2793-2798
14. Best M., Williams J.M., Coccaro E.F. Evidence for a dysfunctional prefrontal circuit in patients with an impulsive aggressive disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 99:2002;8448-8453
15. Bizot J.C., Thiebot M.H., Le Bihan C., Soubrie P., Simon P. Effects of imipramine-like drugs and serotonin uptake blockers on delay of reward in rats. Possible implication in the behavioral mechanism of action of antidepressants. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 246:1988;1144-1151
16. Blair R.J., Colledge E., Mitchell D.G. Somatic markers and response reversal: Is there orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in boys with psychopathic tendencies? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 29:2001;499-511
17. Butter C. Perseveration in extinction and in discrimination reversal tasks following selective frontal ablations in macaca mulatta. Physiology and Behavior. 4:1969;163-171
18. Cardinal R.N., Pennicott D.R., Sugathapala C.L., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Impulsive choice induced in rats by lesions of the nucleus accumbens core. Science. 292:2001;2499-2501
19. Cardinal R.N., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. The effects of D-amphetamine, chlordiazepoxide, alpha-flupenthixol and behavioural manipulations on choice of signalled and unsignalled delayed reinforcement in rats. Psychopharmacology. 152:2000;362-375
20. Cherek D.R., Lane S.D. Fenfluramine effects on impulsivity in a sample of adults with and without history of conduct disorder. Psychopharmacology. 152:2000;149-156
21. Clark L., Manes F., Antoun N., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. The contributions of lesion laterality and lesion volume to decision-making impairment following frontal lobe damage. Neuropsychologia. 41:2003;1474-1483
22. Clark L., Robbins T. Decision-making deficits in drug addiction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 6:2002;361-363
23. Cools R., Barker R.A., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. Enhanced or impaired cognitive function in Parkinson's disease as a function of dopaminergic medication and task demands. Cerebral Cortex. 11:2001;1136-1143
24. Cools R., Barker R.A., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. L-Dopa medication remediates cognitive inflexibility, but increases impulsivity in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia. 41:2003;1431-1441
25. Cools R., Clark L., Owen A.M., Robbins T.W. Defining the neural mechanisms of probabilistic reversal learning using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience. 22:2002;4563-4567
26. Czernecki V., Pillon B., Houeto J.L., Pochon J.B., Levy R., Dubois B. Motivation, reward, and Parkinson's disease: Influence of dopatherapy. Neuropsychologia. 40:2002;2257-2267
27. Damasio A. Descartes' error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. 1994;G.P. Putnam, New York
28. Damasio A.R., Tranel D., Damasio H. Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli. Behavioral Brain Research. 41:1990;81-94
29. Daum I., Schugens M.M., Channon S., Polkey C.E., Gray J.A. T-maze discrimination and reversal learning after unilateral temporal or frontal lobe lesions in man. Cortex. 27:1991;613-622
30. de Wit H., Enggasser J.L., Richards J.B. Acute administration of d-amphetamine decreases impulsivity in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology. 27:2002;813-825
31. DeGrandpre R. Ritalin nation. 2000;Norton & Company, New York
32. Delgado M.R., Nystrom L.E., Fissell C., Noll D.C., Fiez J.A. Tracking the hemodynamic responses to reward and punishment in the striatum. Journal of Neurophysiology. 84:2000;3072-3077
33. Di Chiara G., Tanda G., Bassareo V., Pontieri F., Acquas E., Fenu S., Cadoni C., Carboni E. Drug addiction as a disorder of associative learning. Role of nucleus accumbens shell/extended amygdala dopamine. Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 877:1999;461-485
34. Dias R., Robbins T.W., Roberts A.C. Dissociation in prefrontal cortex of affective and attentional shifts. Nature. 380:1996;69-72
35. Divac I., Rosvold H.E., Szwarcbart M.K. Behavioral effects of selective ablation of the caudate nucleus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 63:1967;184-190
36. Domeney A.M., Costall B., Gerrard P.A., Jones D.N., Naylor R.J., Tyers M.B. The effect of ondansetron on cognitive performance in the marmoset. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior. 38:1991;169-175
37. Downes J.J., Roberts A.C., Sahakian B.J., Evenden J.L., Morris R.G., Robbins T.W. Impaired extra-dimensional shift performance in medicated and unmedicated Parkinson's disease: Evidence for a specific attentional dysfunction. Neuropsychologia. 27:1989;1329-1343
38. Ernst M., Bolla K., Mouratidis M., Contoreggi C., Matochik J.A., Kurian V., Cadet J.L., Kimes A.S., London E.D. Decision-making in a risk-taking task: A PET study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 26:2002;682-691
39. Ernst M., Grant S.J., London E.D., Contoreggi C.S., Kimes A.S., Spurgeon L. Decision making in adolescents with behavior disorders and adults with substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry. 160:2003;33-40
40. Evenden J.L. Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology. 146:1999;348-361
41. Fellows L.K., Farah M.J. Ventromedial frontal cortex mediates affective shifting in humans: Evidence from a reversal learning paradigm. Brain. 126:2003;1830-1837
42. Garavan H., Ross T.J., Stein E.A. Right hemispheric dominance of inhibitory control: An event-related functional MRI study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 96:1999;8301-8306
43. Goldman Rakic P.S. Circuitry of primate prefrontal cortex and regulation of behaviour by representational memory. Plum F., Mountcastle V. Handbook of physiology: The nervous system. Vol. 5:1987;373-417 American Physiological Society, Bethesda
44. Goldstein R.Z., Volkow N.D. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry. 159:2002;1642-1652
45. Gregory C.A., Hodges J.R. Clinical features of frontal lobe dementia in comparison to Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neural Transmission. 47:1996;103-123
46. Gregory C.A., Serra-Mestres J., Hodges J.R. Early diagnosis of the frontal variant of frontotemporal dementia: How sensitive are standard neuroimaging and neuropsychologic tests? Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology. 12:1999;128-135
47. Itami S., Uno H. Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder revealed by reversal and extinction tasks. Neuroreport. 13:2002;2453-2457
48. Iversen S.D., Mishkin M. Perseverative interference in monkeys following selective lesions of the inferior prefrontal convexity. Experimental Brain Research. 11:1970;376-386
49. Jentsch J.D., Olausson P., De La Garza R., Taylor J.R. Impairments of reversal learning and response perseveration after repeated, intermittent cocaine administrations to monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology. 26:2002;183-190
50. Jones B., Mishkin M. Limbic lesions and the problem of stimulus - reinforcement associations. Experimental Neurology. 36:1972;362-377
51. King A.R., Martin I.L., Melville K.A. Reversal learning enhanced by lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): Concomitant rise in brain 5-hydroxytryptamine levels. British Journal of Pharmacology. 52:1974;419-426
52. Kish S.J., Shannak K., Hornykiewicz O. Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Pathophysiologic and clinical implications. New England Journal of Medicine. 318:1988;876-880
53. Knutson B., Adams C.M., Fong G.W., Hommer D. Anticipation of increasing monetary reward selectively recruits nucleus accumbens. Journal of Neuroscience. 21:2001;RC159
54. Kodituwakku P.W., May P.A., Clericuzio C.L., Weers D. Emotion-related learning in individuals prenatally exposed to alcohol: An investigation of the relation between set shifting, extinction of responses, and behavior. Neuropsychologia. 39:2001;699-708
55. Konishi S., Nakajima K., Uchida I., Kikyo H., Kameyama M., Miyashita Y. Common inhibitory mechanism in human inferior prefrontal cortex revealed by event-related functional MRI. Brain. 122:1999;981-991
56. Laakso M.P., Gunning-Dixon F., Vaurio O., Repo-Tiihonen E., Soininen H., Tiihonen J. Prefrontal volumes in habitually violent subjects with antisocial personality disorder and type 2 alcoholism. Psychiatry Research. 114:2002;95-102
57. Lange K.W., Robbins T.W., Marsden C.D., James M., Owen A.M., Paul G.M. L-Dopa withdrawal in Parkinson's disease selectively impairs cognitive performance in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction. Psychopharmacology. 107:1992;394-404
58. Lapierre D., Braun C.M., Hodgins S. Ventral frontal deficits in psychopathy: Neuropsychological test findings. Neuropsychologia. 33:1995;139-151
59. Logue A. Research on self-control: An integrating framework. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 11:1988;665-709
60. Lough S., Hodges J.R. Measuring and modifying abnormal social cognition in frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 53:2002;639-646
61. Machado C.J., Bachevalier J. Non-human primate models of childhood psychopathology: The promise and the limitations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 44:2003;64-87
62. Malloy P., Bihrle A., Duffy J., Cimino C. The orbitomedial frontal syndrome. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 8:1993;185-201
63. Manes F., Sahakian B., Clark L., Rogers R., Antoun N., Aitken M., Robbins T. Decision-making processes following damage to the prefrontal cortex. Brain. 125:2002;624-639
64. Mavaddat N., Kirkpatrick P.J., Rogers R.D., Sahakian B.J. Deficits in decision-making in patients with aneurysms of the anterior communicating artery. Brain. 123:2000;2109-2117
65. Mazur J. An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. Commons M.J.M.L, Nevin J.A., Rachlin H. Quantitative analysis of behavior. Vol 5: The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value. 1987;Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
66. Mehta M.A., Swainson R., Ogilvie A.D., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. Improved short-term spatial memory but impaired reversal learning following the dopamine D(2) agonist bromocriptine in human volunteers. Psychopharmacology. 159:2001;10-20
67. Meunier M., Bachevalier J., Mishkin M. Effects of orbital frontal and anterior cingulate lesions on object and spatial memory in rhesus monkeys. Neuropsychologia. 35:1997;999-1015
68. Millan M.J., Dekeyne A., Gobert A. Serotonin (5-HT)2C receptors tonically inhibit dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NA), but not 5-HT, release in the frontal cortex in vivo. Neuropharmacology. 37:1998;953-955
69. Mintzer M.Z., Stitzer M.L. Cognitive impairment in methadone maintenance patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 67:2002;41-51
70. Mitchell D.G., Colledge E., Leonard A., Blair R.J. Risky decisions and response reversal: Is there evidence of orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in psychopathic individuals? Neuropsychologia. 40:2002;2013-2022
71. Mobini S., Body S., Ho M.Y., Bradshaw C.M., Szabadi E., Deakin J.F., Anderson I.M. Effects of lesions of the orbitofrontal cortex on sensitivity to delayed and probabilistic reinforcement. Psychopharmacology. 160:2002;290-298
72. Mobini S., Chiang T.J., Ho M.Y., Bradshaw C.M., Szabadi E. Effects of central 5-hydroxytryptamine depletion on sensitivity to delayed and probabilistic reinforcement. Psychopharmacology. 152:2000;390-397
73. Mogenson G. Limbic-motor integration. Progress in psychobiology and physiological psychology. 12:1987;117-169
74. Monterosso J., Ehrman R., Napier K.L., O'Brien C.P., Childress A.R. Three decision-making tasks in cocaine-dependent patients: Do they measure the same construct? Addiction. 96:2001;1825-1837
75. Murphy F.C., Smith K.A., Cowen P.J., Robbins T.W., Sahakian B.J. The effects of tryptophan depletion on cognitive and affective processing in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology. 163:2002;42-53
76. Nagahama Y., Okada T., Katsumi Y., Hayashi T., Yamauchi H., Oyanagi C., Konishi J., Fukuyama H., Shibasaki H. Dissociable mechanisms of attentional control within the human prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex. 11:2001;85-92
77. Nomura M. Effects of bifemelane on discrimination learning of serotonergic-dysfunction rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior. 42:1992;721-731
78. O'Doherty J., Kringelbach M.L., Rolls E.T., Hornak J., Andrews C. Abstract reward and punishment representations in the human orbitofrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience. 4:2001;95-102
79. O'Reilly R.C., Noelle D.C., Braver T.S., Cohen J.D. Prefrontal cortex and dynamic categorization tasks: Representational organization and neuromodulatory control. Cerebral Cortex. 12:2002;246-257
80. Ornstein T.J., Iddon J.L., Baldacchino A.M., Sahakian B.J., London M., Everitt B.J., Robbins T.W. Profiles of cognitive dysfunction in chronic amphetamine and heroin abusers. Neuropsychopharmacology. 23:2000;113-126
81. Park S.B., Coull J.T., McShane R.H., Young A.H., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W., Cowen P.J. Tryptophan depletion in normal volunteers produces selective impairments in learning and memory. Neuropharmacology. 33:1994;575-588
82. Poulos C.X., Parker J.L., Le A.D. Dexfenfluramine and 8-OH-DPAT modulate impulsivity in a delay-of-reward paradigm: Implications for a correspondence with alcohol consumption. Behavioural Pharmacology. 7:1996;395-399
83. Rahman S., Sahakian B.J., Hodges J.R., Rogers R.D., Robbins T.W. Specific cognitive deficits in mild frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. Brain. 122:1999;1469-1493
84. Raine A., Lencz T., Bihrle S., LaCasse L., Colletti P. Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry. 57:2000;119-127
85. Ridley R.M., Haystead T.A., Baker H.F. An analysis of visual object reversal learning in the marmoset after amphetamine and haloperidol. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior. 14:1981;345-351
86. Robbins T.W. ADHD and addiction. Nat Med. 8:2002;24-25
87. Robbins T.W., Cador M., Taylor J.R., Everitt B.J. Limbic-striatal interactions in reward-related processes. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 13:1989;155-162
88. Rogers R.D., Andrews T.C., Grasby P.M., Brooks D.J., Robbins T.W. Contrasting cortical and subcortical activations produced by attentional-set shifting and reversal learning in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 12:2000;142-162
89. Rogers R.D., Blackshaw A.J., Middleton H.C., Matthews K., Hawtin K., Crowley C., Hopwood A., Wallace C., Deakin J.F., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. Tryptophan depletion impairs stimulus-reward learning while methylphenidate disrupts attentional control in healthy young adults: Implications for the monoaminergic basis of impulsive behaviour. Psychopharmacology. 146:1999;482-491
90. Rogers R.D., Everitt B.J., Baldacchino A., Blackshaw A.J., Swainson R., Wynne K., Baker N.B., Hunter J., Carthy T., Booker E., London M., Deakin J.F., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. Dissociable deficits in the decision-making cognition of chronic amphetamine abusers, opiate abusers, patients with focal damage to prefrontal cortex, and tryptophan-depleted normal volunteers: Evidence for monoaminergic mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology. 20:1999;322-339
91. Rogers R.D., Owen A.M., Middleton H.C., Williams E.J., Pickard J.D., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. Choosing between small, likely rewards and large, unlikely rewards activates inferior and orbital prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience. 19:1999;9029-9038
92. Rolls E.T. The brain and emotion. 1999;OUP, Oxford
93. Rolls E.T., Critchley H.D., Mason R., Wakeman E.A. Orbitofrontal cortex neurons: Role in olfactory and visual association learning. Journal of Neurophysiology. 75:1996;1970-1981
94. Rolls E.T., Hornak J., Wade D., McGrath J. Emotion-related learning in patients with social and emotional changes associated with frontal lobe damage. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 57:1994;1518-1524
95. Rolls E.T., Thorpe S.J., Maddison S.P. Responses of striatal neurons in the behaving monkey. 1. Head of the caudate nucleus. Behavioural Brain Research. 7:1983;179-210
96. Rubinsztein J.S., Fletcher P.C., Rogers R.D., Ho L.W., Aigbirhio F.I., Paykel E.S., Robbins T.W., Sahakian B.J. Decision-making in mania: A PET study. Brain. 124:2001;2550-2563
97. Schultz W. Getting formal with dopamine and reward. Neuron. 36:2002;241-263
98. Schultz W., Apicella P., Scarnati E., Ljungberg T. Neuronal activity in monkey ventral striatum related to the expectation of reward. Journal of Neuroscience. 12:1992;4595-4610
99. Smith A.G., Neill J.C., Costall B. The dopamine D3/D2 receptor agonist 7-OH-DPAT induces cognitive impairment in the marmoset. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior. 63:1999;201-211
100. Soubrie P. Reconciling the role of central serotonin neurons in human and animal behavior. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 9:1986;319-364
101. Stern C.E., Passingham R.E. The nucleus accumbens in monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). III. Reversal learning. Experimental Brain Research. 106:1995;239-247
102. Stout J.C., Rodawalt W.C., Siemers E.R. Risky decision making in Huntington's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 7:2001;92-101
103. Swainson R., Rogers R.D., Sahakian B.J., Summers B.A., Polkey C.E., Robbins T.W. Probabilistic learning and reversal deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease or frontal or temporal lobe lesions: Possible adverse effects of dopaminergic medication. Neuropsychologia. 38:2000;596-612
104. Taghzouti K., Louilot A., Herman J.P., Le Moal M., Simon H. Alternation behavior, spatial discrimination, and reversal disturbances following 6-hydroxydopamine lesions in the nucleus accumbens of the rat. Behavioral and Neural Biology. 44:1985;354-363
105. Thorpe S.J., Rolls E.T., Maddison S. The orbitofrontal cortex: Neuronal activity in the behaving monkey. Experimental Brain Research. 49:1983;93-115
106. Tranel D., Bechara A., Denburg N.L. Asymmetric functional roles of right and left ventromedial prefrontal cortices in social conduct, decision-making, and emotional processing. Cortex. 38:2002;589-612
107. van Honk J., Hermans E.J., Putman P., Montagne B., Schutter D.J. Defective somatic markers in sub-clinical psychopathy. Neuroreport. 13:2002;1025-1027
108. Wade T.R., de Wit H., Richards J.B. Effects of dopaminergic drugs on delayed reward as a measure of impulsive behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology. 150:2000;90-101
109. Watkins L.H., Rogers R.D., Lawrence A.D., Sahakian B.J., Rosser A.E., Robbins T.W. Impaired planning but intact decision making in early Huntington's disease: Implications for specific fronto-striatal pathology. Neuropsychologia. 38:2000;1112-1125
110. Wilson J.M., Kalasinsky K.S., Levey A.I., Bergeron C., Reiber G., Anthony R.M., Schmunk G.A., Shannak K., Haycock J.W., Kish S.J. Striatal dopamine nerve terminal markers in human, chronic methamphetamine users. Nature Medicine. 2:1996;699-703
111. Wise R.A. In vivo estimates of extracellular dopamine and dopamine metabolite levels during intravenous cocaine or heroin self-administration. Seminars in the Neurosciences. 5:1993;337-342
112. Zahrt J., Taylor J.R., Mathew R.G., Arnsten A.F. Supranormal stimulation of D1 dopamine receptors in the rodent prefrontal cortex impairs spatial working memory performance. Journal of Neuroscience. 17:1997;8528-8535
113. Zald D.H., Pardo J.V. Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: Amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA. 94:1997;4119-4124