Civic nationalism and ethnocultural justice in Turkey

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 436-470

  Smith, Thomas W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN RIGHTS; IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; NATIONALISM; SOCIAL JUSTICE;

EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; TURKEY; WORLD;

EID: 20044373719     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2005.0027     Document Type: Review

References (264)

1. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2002), available at www.state.gov/g/drl/ rls/irf/2002/13986.htm.
2. Recep Tayyip Erdodan, Address at the New Tactics in Human Rights Symposium Ankara, Turkey (29 Sep.-4 Oct. 2004), available at www.newtactics.org/file.php?ID=484.
3. Recep Tayyip Erdooan, Address at the Symposium on Conservative Democracy, Istanbul (10 Jan. 2004). The address is available in Turkish, under the title, 10.01.2004 Muhafazakarlik ve Democrasi Sempozyumu, in the electronic archive of the Justice and Development Party (AK Parti), available at www.akparti.org.tr/.
4. Treaty of Peace Between the Allied Powers and Turkey, July 24, 1923, 28 L.N.T.S. 11, 18 Am. J. Int'l L. 1 (Supp. 1924) (hereinafter Treaty of Lausanne).
5. For overviews of the Kurdish question and the war, see Omer Taşpinar, Kurdish Nationalism and Political Islam in Turkey: Kemalish Identity in Transition (2005);
6. Doýu Ergil, The Kurdish Question in Turkey, 11 J. Dem. 122 (2000);
7. Henri J. Barkey et al., Turkey's Kurdish Question (1998);
8. Kemal Kirişci & Gareth M. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict (1997);
9. Michael M. Gunter, The Kurdish and the Future of Turkey (1997).
10. See Hugh Pope, Turkish Politician's Change of Heart: AKP Leader Turns Away from Islam and Finds his Party May Win Power, Wall St. J., 1 Aug. 2002, at Vol. 240:23, A9.
11. See Copenhagen European Council, Conclusions of the Presidency, E.U. Bull., no. 6, § 7(A)(iii) (1993) (establishing what are known as the "Copenhagen Guidelines" or Copenhagen Criteria"). The Copenhagen Guidelines require a country seeking accession to the EU to achieve the following goals: [S]tability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities, the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union. Membership presupposes the candidate's ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union. I b i d. 'See also Thomas W. Smith, The Politics of Conditionality: The European Union and Human Rights Reform in Turkey, in The European and Democratization 111 (Paul J. Kubicek ed., 2003).
12. See Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background 16 (1940), which distinguished between "liberal, civic Western" and "illiberal, ethnic Eastern" nationalism;
13. Liah Greenfield, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity 11 (1992);
14. Yael Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (1993);
15. David Brown, Are There Good and Bad Nationalisms?, 5 Nations and Nationalism 281, 281-82 (1999);
16. Citizenship in Diverse Societies 366-67 (Will Kymlicka & Wayne Norman eds., 2001);
17. Margaret Moore, The Ethnics of Nationalism 15 (2001);
18. Seyla Benhabib, The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the Global Era 152 (2002).
19. Michael Ignatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism 6 (1994).
20. Surveys include Bernard Yack, Reconciling Liberalism and Nationalism , 23 Pol. Theory 166 (1995);
21. Michael Freeman, Liberal Democracy and Minority Rights, in Human Rights: New Perspectives, New Realities 31 (Adamantia Pollis & Peter Schwab eds., 2000);
22. David Brown, Contemporary Nationalism: Civic, Ethnocultural and Multicultural Politics (2000);
23. Gerard Delanty, Two Conceptions of Cultural Citizenship: A Review of Recent Literature on Culture and Citizenship, 3 Global Rev. Ethnopolitic 60 (2002), available at www.ethnopolitics.org /archive/volume_1/issue_3/delanty.pdf.
24. Will Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular: Nationalism, Multiculturalism and Citizenship 4 (2001).
25. I b i d. at 26.
26. Anthony D. Smith, Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era ch. 5 (1995).
27. Brown, Contemporary Nationalism, supra note 10, at 10-11.
28. James Tully, Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity ch. 3 (1995).
29. Charles Taylor adds, "If a modern society has an 'official' language ... that is, a state-sponsored, -inculcated, and -defined language and culture, in which both economy and state function, that it is obviously an immense advantage to people if this language and culture are theirs." Kymlicka, supra note 11, at 27.
30. See Joel E. Oestreich, Liberal Theory and Minority Group Rights , 21 Hum. Rts. Q. 108, 118 (1999);
31. see also Michael Freeman, Are There Collective Human Rights? , 43 Pol. Stud. 25 (1995);
32. William F. Felice, The Case for Collective Human Rights: The Reality of Group Suffering, 10 Ethics & Int'l Aff. 47 (1996).
33. Kymlicka, supra note 11, at 230-32.
34. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Fr. 1789), reprinted in The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History 77-79 (Lynn Hunt ed., 1996).
35. Andrew Mango, Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey 49 (1999).
36. Turkish Daily News (11 Mar. 1995), quoted in Kemal Kirişci & Gareth M. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict 97 (1997).
37. Ýlkay Sunar, State, Society, and Democracy in Turkey, in Turkey Between East and West: New Challenges for a Rising Regional Power 143 (Vojtech Mastny & R. Craig Nation eds., 1996).
38. See, e.g., Kemal Kirisci, Disaggregating Turkish Citizenship and Immigration Practices, 36 Middle E. Stud. 1 (July 2000);
39. Berna Yazici, Discovering Our Past: Are "We" Breaking Taboos? Reconstructing Atatürkism and the Past in Contemporary Turkey, 25 New Persp. Turk. 1 (2001);
40. Kerem Öktem, Creating the Turk's Homeland: Modernization, Nationalism and Geography in Southeast Turkey in the late 19th and 20th Centuries (2003) (paper for the Socrates Kokkalis Graduate Workshop, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University), available at www.ksg.harvard.edu/kokkalis/GSW5/oktem.pdf;
41. Soner Çaoaptay, Citizenship Policies in Interwar Turkey, 9 Nations & Nationalism 601 (2003);
42. Ayhan Aktar, Varlýk Vergesi ve "Türklesştirme" Politikalarý [The Capital Tax and "Turkification" Policies] (2003);
43. Soner Çadaptay, Race, Assimilation and Kemalism: Turkish Nationalism and the Minorities in the 1930s, 40 Middle E. Stud. 86 (2004).
44. Hugh Poulton, Top Hat, Grey Wolf and Crescent: Turkish Nationalism and the Turkish Republic 108 (1997).
45. Christopher Houston, Islam, Kurds and the Turkish Nation State 99-101 (2001).
46. See Ziya Gökalp, Turkish Nationalism and Western Civilization: Selected Essays of Ziya Gökalp (1959);
47. See especially The Programme of Turkism, in id. at 284-313.
48. See also David Kushner, The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876-1908, at 8-10 (1977).
49. Çadptay, Citizenship Policies in Interwar Turkey, supra note 22, at 601-02.
50. Justin McCarthy, The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire 213 (2001).
51. The name "Turanists" refers to the mythical land of Turan where Turks were said to have originated.
52. Treaty of Lausanne, supra note 4.
53. See also Jacob M. Landau, Panturkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation 74-75 (1995).
54. See Kushner, supra note 25, at 101-02 (1977). The Turkish Language Association is still operating under auspices of the Turkish government. Its website is available at www.tdk.gov.tr/.
55. See Erik J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History 199 (1997);
56. Poulton, supra note 23, at 101-09.
57. For an overview of recent Turkish nationalist - and antinationalist - historiography, see Howard Eissenstat, History and Historiography: Politics and Memory in the Turkish Republic, 12 Contemp. Eur. Hist. 94 (2003). The English-language website of the Turkish Historical Society is available at www.ttk.gov.tr/ingilizce/index.html.
58. See Osmanlý Belgelerinde Ermeniler, 1915-1920 [Ottoman Documents Relating to the Armenians] (1994);
59. Ermeni Orlaylarý Tarihi [Armenian Historical Incidents] (1998);
60. Ermeni Meselesinin Siyasi Tarihçfsi, 1877-1914 [Political History of the Armenian Question] (2001). All are published in Ankara by the State Archives.
61. See Eric Schmitt, House Backs Off on Condemning Turks' Killing of Armenians, N.Y. Times, 20 Oct. 2000, at A11.
62. For a view from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, see Türkaya Ataöv, The "Armenian Question": Conflict, Trauma and Objectivity (1997).
63. In April 2003, the Turkish Ministry of Education issued a circular urging schools to have fifth- and seventh-grade students write essays arguing that allegations of the Armenian genocide were unfounded. The Ministry also encouraged schools to stage conferences on the topic. Police arrested seven teachers for comments made at one of these conferences. See also U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2003, at 23-24 (2004), available at www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27869.htm.
64. See Directorate General of Press and Information, Office of the Prime Minister, Genocide Statue and Museum Opens in Igdir, Turk. Press Rev., 6 Oct. 1999, available at www.byegm.gov.tr/ YAYINLARIMIZ/CHR/ING99/10/99X10X06.HTM.
65. See Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922, at 184-86 (2000);
66. Taner Akçam, From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide (2004);
67. Richard G. Hovannisian, Introduction, in Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide 13 (Richard G. Hovannisian ed., 1998).
68. See Benjamin A. Valentino, Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century 157-66 (2004).
69. Öktem, supra note 22, at 8.
70. Eric D. Weitz, A Century of Genocid: Utopias of Race and Nation 51 (2003);
71. Hovannisian, supra note 35, at 14.
72. Weitz, supra note 38.
73. Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe 43 (2001).
74. Quoted in John Kelsay, Bosnia and the Muslim Critique of Modernity, in Religion and Justice in the War over Bosnia 139 (G. Scott David ed., 1996).
75. Nergis Canefe, Turkish Nationalism and Ethno-Symbolic Analysis: The Rules of Exception, 8 Nations & Nationalism 133, 149-50 (2002).
76. I b i d. at 149.
77. A kind of glasnost is underway here, too. Since 2000, several workshops have brought together historians and other scholars - Turks, Armenians, and others - to discuss the fate of the Armenians. Though far from conclusive, the meetings have been fruitful. Some of the Turkish participants, including the Ottoman historian Halil Berktay, have been denounced by nationalist Turks for their research. Officials at Sabancý University, where Berktay teaches, were pressed to fire the historian; they did not. See Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation, The Burden of History: Turkish-Armenian Dialogue, TESEV Electronic Newsletter (Apr. 2001), available at www.tesev.org.tr/nisan/apr3.html;
78. Ron Suny & Fatma Müge Göçk, Discussing Genocide: Contextualizing the Armenian Experience in the Ottoman Empire, 9 J. Int'l Institute (2002), available at www.umich.edu/~iinet/journal/ vol9no3/suny.htm;
79. Belinda Cooper, Turks Breach Wall of Silence, N.Y. Times, 6 Mar. 2004, at B9.
80. Turkey's best known contemporary novelist Orhan Pamuk has been pilloried in much of the Turkish press after mentioning in an interview in February 2005 that a million Armenians had been killed in Turkey. See Nouritza Matossiann, They Say Incident. To me, It's Genocide, The Guardian, 27 Feb. 2005, available at observer.guardian.co.uk/ international/story/0,6903,1426319,00.html.
81. Treaty of Lausanne, supra note 4, arts. 37-45.
82. Most important was the Treaty of Berlin (1878). During the nineteenth century, Christian minorities used the diplomatic intervention of their Great Power patrons to help them secure certain privileges under Ottoman rule-exemption from military service, for example. See Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922, at 66 (2000).
83. Poulton, supra note 23, at 123-24.
84. Figures adapted from Nigar Karimova & Edward Deverell, Swedish Institute of International Affairs, Minorities in Turkey, Occasional Papers no. 19, at 14 (2001), available at www.ui.se /texter/op19.pdf.
85. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2004), available at www.state.gov/g/drl/ rls/irf/2004/35489.htm.
86. See Stanford J. Shaw, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic 244 (1991).
87. Turkey and Israel signed a bilateral defense alliance in 1996, prompted by shared adversaries in the Arab world, common concerns about terrorism, and fears of growing Islamic militancy. The United States, with which both countries have close ties, played matchmaker. Turkish and Israeli forces have engaged in joint naval exercises, and the Israeli Air Force has trained over Turkish soil. The crackdown on Palestinians by the Ariel Sharon government has, however, tested Turkey's tolerance. See, e.g., Suha Bolukbasý, Behind the Turkish-Israeli Alliance: A Turkish View, 29 J. Palestine Stud. 21 (1999);
88. Dov Waxman, Turkey and Israel: A New Balance of Power in the Middle East, 22 Wash. Q. 25 (1999). A bibliography on recent Turkish-Israeli relations is available at tsi.idc.ac.il/Bibliography.html.
89. See BBC News, Turkish Press Aghast at Bombings (16 Nov. 2003), available at news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3275387.stm.
90. Poulton, supra note 23, at 95.
91. Quoted in Servet Mutlu, Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study, 28 Int'l J. Middle E. Stud. 517, 517 (1996). Thanks to Dooan Gürpinar of Sabancý University for clarifying this point.
92. I b i d.
93. Poulton, supra note 23, at 95.
94. See Fuat Dündar, Azýnlýklak: Türkiye Nüfus Sayýmlarýnda [Minorities: The Turkish Population Census] (1999);
95. Karimova & Deverell, supra note 47, at 14.
96. Karimova & Deverell, supra note 47, at 14. See also the country entries for Turkey in the European Roma Rights Centre archives, available at www.errc.org/Archivum_index.php.
97. Law on Settlement, No. 2510 (1934).
98. Kirisci, supra note 22, at 5-6.
99. I b i d. at 18.
100. Poulton, supra note 23, at 116.
101. Çadaptay, Citizenship Policies in Interwar Turkey, supra note 22, at 605-13.
102. Poulton, supra note 23, at 122.
103. Ayhan Aktar, Economic Nationalism in Turkey: The Formative Years, 1912-1925, 10 Bodaziçi J.: Rev. Soc. Econ. & Admin. Sci. 263 (1996).
104. In December 1941, the Struma left Constanta carrying 800 Romanian and Russian Jews hoping to make their way to Palestine. The ship's engines failed while passing through the Bosphorous, and the vessel sat in the port of Istanbul for ten weeks, refugees aboard, while Turkish, British, and local Jewish officials wrangled over their fate. Under British and German pressure, Ankara denied the refugees visas. Turkish police towed the ship several miles out into the Black Sea, where the next morning it was scuttled by a torpedo launched from a Soviet submarine. There was one survivor. See Douglas Frantz & Catherine Collins, Death on the Black Sea: The Untold Story of the "Struma" and War II's Holocaust at Sea xiv-xv (2003).
105. See Stanford Shaw, Turkey and the Holocaust: Turkey's Role in Rescuing Turkish and European Jewry from Nazi Persecution, 1933-1945, at 266 (1993).
106. See Turkish Society Begins to Learn the Realities of the Country's Past . . . And Its Present, Turkish Probe, 12 Dec. 1999.
107. Çadlar Keyder, State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Class and Development 79 (1987).
108. U.S. Library of Congress, Country Study: Turkey, available at countrystudies.us/turkey/34.htm.
109. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2004), supra note 48.
110. See also Human Rights Watch, The Greeks of Turkey (1992);
111. Panayote Elias Dimitras, "Dwindling, Elderly and Frightened?" The Greek Minority in Turkey Revisited, AIM (31 Jan. 2000), available at www.aimpress.ch/dyn/trae/archive/data /200002/ 00201-001-trae-ath.htm.
112. Based on author's estimation.
113. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2004), supra note 48.
114. Nurcan Kaya & Clive Baldwin, Minorities in Turkey: Submission to the European Union and the Turkish Government 28-32 (2004), available at www.minorityrights.org/admin/download/pdf/MRG-TurkeySub.pdf. The issue was forced by a case lodged with the ECHR dealing with the expropriation of a Christian place of veneration. See Institute of French Priests and Others v. Turkey, Application no. 00026308/95, Decision as to Admissibility (14 Dec. 2000).
115. See Institute of French Priests and Others v. Turkey, Application no. 00026308/95, Decision as to Admissibility (14 Dec. 2000).
116. See U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2001), available at www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5694.htm.
117. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2004), supra note 48.
118. See also Jan Pacal, What Happened to the Turkish Assyrians?, Turkish Daily News, 29 Aug. 1996.
119. Letter of the Archbishops of Tur'Abdin and Istanbul to the President of the Republic of Turkey about the Status of the Aramean Minority in Turkey (27 Mar. 1995) (on file with author).
120. See Niyazi Oktem, Religion in Turkey, 2002 B.Y.U. L. Rev. 371, at 377.
121. See Otmar Oehring, Human Rights in Turkey: Secularism = Religious Freedom? 36-37 (2002), available at www.missio-aachen.de/Images/ MR%20T%C3%BCrkei%20englisch_tcm14-11238.pdf.
122. See Thomas W. Smith, Leveraging Norms: The ECHR and Human Rights Reform in Turkey, in Human Rights Policies and Prospects in Turkey (Zehra Arat ed., forthcoming).
123. See Council of Eur. Parl. Ass., Honoring of Obligations and Commitments by Turkey, COE Doc. 10111, art. 3 (17 Mar. 2004).
124. Turkey: A Revolution of Sorts, Economist, 2 Aug. 2003, at 46.
125. Law to Fight Terrorism, No. 3713 (1991).
126. Freedom House Data, available at www.freedomhouse.org/research/ freeworld/2003/countryratings/turkey.htm.
127. See Commission of the European Communities, 2004 Regular Report on Turkey's Progress Towards Accession, COM(2004)656 final, at 23 (hereinafter EU Progress Report 2004).
128. See U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2003, supra note 33, at 5.
129. See EU Progress Report 2004, supra note 82.
130. I b i d. at 54.
131. See U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2003, supra note 33.
132. I b i d.
133. Political Parties Act, No. 2820 (1983), amended by Act No. 4748 (2002).
134. Frank Bruni, Threats and Responses: Istanbul; Turkey Bans One Kurdish Party and Moves on Second, N.Y. Times, 14 Mar. 2003, at A13.
135. See Commission of the European Communities, supra note 84, at 42.
136. Draft Turkish Penal Code, art. 302 (2004).
137. Turkish Penal Code, art. 312 (1926), amended 1981.
138. Draft Turkish Penal Code, art. 216 (2004).
139. The Law Concerning Crimes Committed Against Atatürk, No. 5816 (1951).
140. For details of the 2004 Press Law, see International Publisher's Association, New Turkish Penal Code: A Long Way to Freedom of Expression (2004), available at www.ipa-uie.org/PressRelease/171204/ COMMENTS.htm;
141. Sarah Repucci, Countries at the Crossroads 2005: Turkey 4-5 (2005), available at www.freedomhouse.org/research/crossroads /2005/ turkey2OO5.pdf.
142. Nadire Mater, Mehmedin Kitabý Güneydogu'da Savasmis Askerler Anlatiyor [Mehmet's Book: Soldiers Who Fought in the Southeast Speak Out] (1998). For an account of the trial,
143. see Douglas Frantz, Turkish Journalist Cleared of Insulting Army, N.Y. Times, 30 Sept. 2000, at A7.
144. See Reporters Without Borders, Internet Under Surveillance 2004: Turkey, available at www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=10683.
145. See Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Watch Analysis of the 2001 Regular Report on Turkey (Dec. 2001), available at hrw.org/ backgrounder/eca/turkey-analysis.htm.
146. See id.;
147. Human Rights Watch, Turkey: Rights Progress Marred in Key Year for EU Bid (3 Mar. 2004), available at hrw.org/english/docs/2004/03/03/ turkey7784_txt.htm.
148. See Amnesty International, Turkey: Systematic Torture Continues in Early 2002, A1 Index Eur 44/040/2002, available at web.amnesty.org/ library/Index/ENGEUR440402002.
149. According to the European Commission, between October 2003 and August 2004, ninety-eight different investigations and court cases were launched against the IHD/HRA. See Commission of the European Communities, supra note 84. The website of the Human Rights Association is available at www.ihd.org.tr/eindex.html.
150. See the website of the Turkish Human Rights Foundation, available at www.tihv.org.tr/eindex.html.
151. U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights, Istanbul Protocol: Manual on the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, U.N. Doc. HR/P/PT/8/ Rev.1, U.N. Sales No. E.04.XIV.3 (2004).
152. See the Mazlumder website, available at www.mazlumder.org/ english/mainpage.htm.
153. Erik J. Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History 192 (1998).
154. Poulton, supra note 23, at 99.
155. Law Concerning the Abolishment of the Caliphate and the Expulsion of the Ottoman Dynasty from Lands Under the Jurisdiction of the Republic of Turkey, No. 432 (1924).
156. The best discussion of this top-down secularization and Turkification of Islam is Binnaz Toprak, Civil Society in Turkey, in Civil Society in the Middlle East 107 (Augustus Richard Norton ed., 1996).
157. In The Social Contract, Rousseau advocates a "purely civil profession of faith of which the Sovereign should fix the articles, not exactly as religious dogmas, but as social sentiments without which a man cannot be a good citizen or a faithful subject." The dogmas of civil religion, he added, "ought to be few, simple, and exactly worded." Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract and Discourses 276 (1973). No political theorist posits a more rigorous conception of secular sovereignty than Hobbes. In Leviathan, Hobbes theorizes a secular absolutism that trumps especially divine law: Some men have pretended for their disobedience to their Sovereign, a new Covenant, made, not with men, but with God .... But this pretence of Covenant with God is so evident a lie, even in the pretenders own consciences, that it is not only an act of an unjust, but also of a vile, and unmanly disposition.
158. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan 230 (1983).
159. Ýlter Turan, Religion and Political Culture in Turkey, in Islam in Modern Turkey: Religion, Politics and Literature in a Secular State 42 (Richard Tapper ed., 1991).
160. On the "cult of Atatürk" see Yael Navaro-Yashin, Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey 188 (2002).
161. See M. Şükrü Haniodlu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902-1908, at 318 (2001);
162. Feroz Ahmad, The Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950-1975, at 363 (1977).
163. See Turan, supra note 112, at 42.
164. Kirisci, supra note 22, at 18. 117.
165. I b i d. at 3.
166. I b i d. at 18.
167. See M. Hakan Yavuz, The Assassination of Collective Memory: The Case of Turkey, 89 Muslim World 193, 193 (1999).
168. See Ayşe Ayata, The Emergence of Identity Politics in Turkey , 17 New Persp. Turkey 67-69 (1997);
169. Ziya Öniş, The Political Economy of Islamic Resurgence in Turkey: The Rise of the Welfare Party in Perspective, 18 Third World Q. 743 (1997);
170. Hakan Yavuz, Political Islam and the Welfare (Refah) Party in Turkey , 30 Comp. Pol. 63 (1997);
171. Ahmet Yýldýz, Politico-Religious Discourse of Political Islam in Turkey: The Parties of National Outlook, 93 Muslim World 187 (2003).
172. See BBC News, Istanbul Rocked by Double Bombing (20 Nov. 2003), available at news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3222608.stm.
173. See Houston, supra note 24, at 12-14, 183;
174. Jenny B. White, Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics 23 (2000);
175. Alev, Çinar, Refah Party and the City Administration of Istanbul: Liberal Islam, Localism and Hybridity, 16 New Persp. Turkey 23 (1997).
176. See Yisuf Sevki Hakyemez & Birol Akgün, Limitation on the Freedom of Political Parties in Turkey and the Jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights, 7 Mediterranean Pol. 54, 65-66 (2002).
177. The closure of Refah was upheld by the ECHR. A divided Court ruled that Refah did indeed envision an "Islamic theocratic regime," and the banning the party thus met a "pressing social need " that was within the margin of appreciation accorded states under the Convention and that "was not disproportionate to the legitimate aims pursued." See Refah Partisi (Prosperity Party) v. Turkey, Applications 41340/98, 41342/ 98, 41343/98, 41344/98, Judgment §§ 76, 82 (31 Jul. 2001). The ECHR has also upheld the dismissal of members of the military for participating in fundamentalist activities (Kalaç v. Turkey, Application 20704/92, Judgment (1 Jul. 1997)); and has ruled inadmissible at least twenty applications involving military life and religious observance and dress.
178. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2001), supra note 74.
179. In June 2004, the ECHR ruled against a woman who was barred from attending medical school at Istanbul University because she wore an Islamic headscarf. The Court held that Article 9 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 4 Nor. 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221, Europ. T.S. No. 5 (entered into force 3 Sept. 1953), which deals with religious freedom, "does not protect every act motivated or inspired by a religion or belief," and found that the university ban on headscarves "pursued the legitimate aims of protecting the rights and freedoms of others and of protecting public order." Sahin v. Turkey, Application 44774/98, Judgment §§ 66, 84 (29 June 2004).
180. For background, see Eric Rouleau, Turkey's Modern Pashas: Military with Political Power, Le Monde Diplomatique, Sept. 2000.
181. See also Soner Çaǧatay, European Union Reforms Diminish the Role of the Turkish Military: Ankara Knocking on Brussels' Door, Washington Institute for Near East Policy: Policywatch no. 781 (2003), available at www.washingtoninstitute.org /templateC05.php?CID=1659.
182. See Ebru Dogan, BBC News, Turkey's Militant Minority (21 Nov. 2003), available at news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3227320.stm.;
183. M. Hakan Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey 244-45 (2003).
184. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, supra note 128, ay 50;
185. Zürcher, supra note 107, at 201.
186. Ahmad, supra note 114, at 378-81.
187. I b i d. at 374-75.
188. Étienne Copeaux, Espace et temps de la Nation Turque: Analyse D'une Historiographie Nationaliste, 1934-1993 (1997),
189. quoted in Eissenstat, supra note 31, at 104.
190. See Binnaz Toprak, Religion as State Ideology in a Secular Setting: The Turkish-Islamic Synthesis, in Aspects of Religion in Secular Turkey 10 (Malcolm Wagstaff ed., 1990);
191. Michael E. Meeker, The New Muslim Intellectuals in the Republic of Turkey, in Islam in Modern Turkey: Religion, Politics and Literature in a Secular State 189 (Richard Tapper ed., 1991).
192. Toprak, Civil Society in Turkey, supra note 110, at 107-08.
193. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, supra note 128, at 70-71.
194. Turk. Const. art. 24 (1982).
195. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, supra note 128, at 124, Table 5.1 .
196. Uour Akinci, State and Religion Education in Turkey: A Dilemma (4 Jan. 2004), available at www.turkishpress.com.
197. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, supra note 128, at 237.
198. Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights and the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, Addendum 1: Situation in Turkey, U.N. GAOR, 55th Sess., at 5-6, U.N. Doc. A/55/280/Add.1 (2000).
199. Hans-Lukas Kieser, The Alevis' Ambivalent Encounter with Modernity: Islam, Reform and Ethnopolitics in Turkey (19th-20th cc.) 1 (2002) (unpublished manuscript prepared for the Conference, Anthropology, Archaeology and Heritage in the Balkans and Anatolia or The Life and Times of F.W. Hasluck (1878-1920), University of Wales, Gregynog, (3-6 Nov. 2001)), available at www.hist.net/kieser/pu/Wales.pdf.
200. See Metin Heper & Şule Toktaş, Islam, Modernity, and Democracy in Contemporary Turkey: The Case of Recep Tayyip Erdooan, 93 Muslim World 157 (2003);
201. Thomas W. Smith, Between Allah and Atatürk: The Turkish Model from Laicism to Liberal Islam, 9 Int'l J. Hum. Rts. (forthcoming 2005).
202. The Enigmatic Mr. Erdogan, Economist, 18 Dec. 2004, at 74.
203. See the AKP website, available at www.akparti.org.tr/.
204. Bertil Dunér & Edward Deverell, Country Cousin: Turkey, the European Union and Human Rights, 2 Turkish Stud. 6, 7 (2001).
205. Quoted in Pope, supra note 6.
206. See Martin van Bruinessen, Kurds, Turks and the Alevi Revival in Turkey, 200 Middle E. Rep. 7 (Jul.-Sept. 1996).
207. See Tahire Erman & Emrah Göker, Alevi Politics in Contemporary Turkey, 36 Middle E. Stud. 99, 105 (Oct. 2000).
208. Poulton, supra note 23, at 162-63, 262.
209. David Shankland, The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition 26 (2003).
210. van Bruinessen, supra note 147, at 9.
211. Kieser, supra note 141, at 17.
212. See Alev Çinar & Burak Arikan, The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists, 3 Turkish Stud. 25 (2002);
213. M. Hakan Yavuz, The Politics of Fear: The Rise of the Nationalist Action Party (MHP) in Turkey 56 Middle E. J. 200 (2002).
214. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2003), available at www.state.gov/g/drl/ rls/irf/2003/24438.htm.
215. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report (2004), supra note 48.
216. David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds 186-89 (1997).
217. Houston, supra note 24, at 99-101.
218. Quoted in Philip Mansel, Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453-1924, at 421 (1996).
219. Quoted in Ergil, supra note 5, at 130.
220. See Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536-1966, at 7-9 (1975). Incomes in the Kurdish Southeast are roughly one-tenth of those in the industrial swathe of Western Turkey.
221. Henri J. Barkey & Graham E. Fuller, Turkey's Kurdish Question 117-18 (1998).
222. Heinz Kramer, A Changing Turkey: Challenges to Europe and the U.S. 39 (2000).
223. On Kurdish emic and etic markers see Mutlu, supra note 53, at 518-19.
224. See Kirisci & Winrow, supra note 20, at 23-25.
225. See Lâle Yalçýn-Heckmann, Ethnic Islam and Nationalism among the Kurds in Turkey, in Islam in Modern Turkey: Politics an Literature in a Secular State 103-06 (Richard Tapper ed., 1991).
226. See Houston, supra note 24, at 125.
227. McDowall, supra note 156, at 199-200.
228. See Stephen Kinzer, Turks and Kurds: A Corner of the World that Peace Forgot, N.Y. Times, 4 July 1999.
229. See International Crisis Group, Iraq: Allaying Turkey's Fears over Kurdish Ambitions 14, 18 (2005), available at www.icg.org/home/ index.cfm?1=1&id=3241.
230. See also Yigal Schleifer, How Will Turkey Respond to Growing Rebel Violence?, Christian Science Monitor, 22 Sept. 2004.
231. McDowall, supra note 156, at 196.
232. See Yalçýn-Heckmann, supra note 164, at 104;
233. McDowall, supra note 156, at 196-98, 210-11.
234. Barkey & Fuller, supra note 161, at xii.
235. This echoes Ernest Gellner's observation that the rise of nationalism often attends the transformation from agrarian - or in the Kurdish case, grazier - society to industrial society. See generally Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (1993).
236. See also Murat Somer, Ethnic Kurds, Endogenous Identities, and Turkey's Democratization and Integration with Europe, 1 Global Rev. Ethnopolitics 74, 87-88 (June 2002), available at www.ethnopolitics.org/archive/volume_1/issue_4/somer.pdf.
237. See Tahire Erman, Becoming "Urban" or Remaining "Rural": The Views of Turkish Rural-to-Urban Migrants on the "Integration Question," 30 Int'l J. Middle E. Stud. 541 (1998).
238. Ayşe Güneş-Ayata & Sencer Ayata, Ethnic and Religious Bases of Voting, in Politics, Parties & Elections in Turkey 137, 139 (Sabri Sayarý & Yýlmaz Esmer eds., 2003).
239. See Bruni, supra note 91.
240. Ali Çarkoǧlu, Turkey's November 2002 Elections: A New Beginning?, 6 Middle East Rev. Int'l Aff. 30, 33-34 (2002), available at meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2002/issue4/carkoglu.pdf.
241. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2003, supra note 33.
242. Öktem, supra note 22, at 9.
243. See Yaşar Kemal, The Dark Cloud over Turkey, 24 Index on Censorship 141 (1995);
244. Stephen Kinzer, Intellectuals Urge Turkey to End the War Against Its Kurds, N.Y. Times, 22 Oct. 1999, at A12.
245. See Press Release, Human Rights Foundation of Turkey (31 May 2001), available at www.tihv.org.tr/eindex.html.
246. The survey was conducted by Doou Ergil of Ankara University. Ergil's findings are summarized in McDowall, supra note 156, at 446.
247. Joost Jongerden, Resettlement and Reconstruction of Identity: The Case of the Kurds in Turkey, 1 Global Rev. Ethnopolitics 80 (2001), available at www.ethnopolitics.org/archive/volume_1/issue_1/ jongerden.pdf.
248. See Human Rights Watch, Displaced and Disregarded: Turkey's Falling Village Return Program 4 (Oct. 2002), available at www.hrw.org/reports/2002/turkey/.
249. The largest share of applications to the ECHR from Turkey have been lodged by Kurds seeking damages under Protocol 1, Article 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights for properties allegedly wrecked by Turkish security forces. Since 2000, there has been a sharp up-tick in the number of "friendly settlements," in which Turkey pays monetary damages to the applicant, but also satisfies the Court that legal and administrative reforms have been enacted to prevent future abuses. Thomas W. Smith, Leveraging Norms: The ECHR and Human Rights Reform in Turkey, supra note 79.
250. See Human Rights Watch, Displaced and Disregarded, supra note 182.
251. See generally Kirisci & Winrow, supra note 20, ch. 6;
252. Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey ch. 4 (1997);
253. Dietrich Jung & Wolfango Piccou, Turkey at the Crossroads: Ottoman Legacies and a Greater Middle East ch. 7 (2001).
254. See International Crisis Group, Iraq: Allaying Turkey's Fears over Kurdish Ambitions, supra note 168, at 11-12.
255. See id. at 6-8;
256. Scott Peterson, Kurdish Groups Unite as Turkey Watches, Warily, Christian Science Monitor, 4 Oct. 2002;
257. Sandra Mackey, The Coming Clash Over Kirkuk, N.Y. Times, 9 Feb. 2005, at A23.
258. See, e.g., The Kurdish Human Rights Project, The Ilisu Dam: A Human Rights Disaster in the Making (1999);
259. Stephen Kinzer, Dam in Turkey May Soon Flood - A '2nd Pompeii,' N.Y. Times, 7 May 2000, at 1.
260. U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Turkey: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2003, supra note 33.
261. A good overview of difficulties Kurds still face is Canadian Immigration and Refugee Board, Country of Origin Research: Turkey, TUR42658.E (2004), available at www.irbcisr.gc.ca/en/research/ndp/ref/ ?action=view&doc=tur42658e.
262. See also At Last, Turkish Kurds Are Able to Voice Their Hope of Freedom, Telegraph, 11 June 2003.
263. See Canadian Immigration and Refugee Board, supra note 189.
264. Ebru Doǧan, BBC News, Kurds Wait for Turkish Sea Change (19 Dec. 2003), available at news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/ 3328875.stm.