Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A demographic study

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 517-541

  Mutlu, Servet ^a  

^a EGE UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOGRAPHIC STUDY; DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS; ETHNIC MINORITY; KURDISH PEOPLE; POLICY IMPLICATION; POPULATION DISTRIBUTION; POPULATION REDISTRIBUTION;

TURKEY;

EID: 0030436315     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800063819     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. The half is supposed to be the gypsies.
2. On the millet system in the Ottoman Empire, see Kemal Karpat, "The Ethnicity Problem in a Multi-Ethnic Anational Islamic State: Continuity and Recasting of Ethnic Identity in the Ottoman State," in Ethnic Groups and the State, ed. Paul Brass (Totowa: N.J.: Barnes and Noble Books, 1985), 102-5.
3. Most of the ethnic groups are not minorities by law. By the Lausanne Treaty of 1923, the Republic of Turkey recognizes only non-Muslim minorities and no ethnically based ones.
4. Actually, 51 of the subgroups of Turcomen, namely Tahtaci, Alevi, Karaçay, and Kumuk, are included; see Peter Alford Andrews, "Catalogue of Ethnic Groups," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, ed. and comp. Peter Alford Andrews (Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1989), 53-178. This is a ground-breaking work and the most comprehensive encyclopedic compilation to date on ethnic groups in Turkey.
5. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
6. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
7. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
8. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
9. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
10. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
11. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
12. Estimates of the number of Kurds in Turkey in the early 1990s range from 7 million to 15 million; see Ali Erman Özsoy, İsmet Koç, and Aykut Toros, "Türkiye'nin Etnik Yapisinin Ana Dil Sorularina Göre Analizi," Turkish Journal of Population Studies 14 (1992): 101-14; Mortan Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara: Turkey After Özal," Foreign Policy 91 (6 June 1993): 174; Christopher Dickey, "A Game of Kurdish Roulette," Newsweek, 12 July 1993, 33; Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 6-8. Van Bruinessen's estimate for 1975 is 7.5 million, which, at the national growth rate of 2.21 percent per annum between 1975 and 1990, should have reached 10.45 million in 1990; Martin van Bruinessen, Aǧa Şeyh ve Devlet trans. Remziye Aslan (first published in Dutch in 1978) (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 35. Some Kurdish leaders and sympathizers quote figures as high as 20 million for 1990; Kemal Burkay, Geçmişten Bugüne Kürtler ve Kürdistan: Coǧrafya-Tarih, Edebiyat (İstanbul: Deng Yayinlari, 1992) 22-25; interview with Server Tanilli by Metin Sever in Kürt Sorunu: Aydinlarimiz Ne Düşünüyor, ed. Metin Sever (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 262, Mehmet Bayrak, Kürtler ve Ulusal-Demokratik Mücadeleleri, (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1993), 585.
13. Kendal gives the number of Kurds in Turkey as 8.5 million for 1970, McDowall as 9.6 million for the late 1980s (apparently for 1985), and Izady as 13.65 million for 1990, accounting for 23.6 percent, 19 percent, and 24 percent of the total population in the respective years. It is not clear how they arrived at these figures, as they give neither the sources of data nor the method of estimation. But an examination of the census material suggests how they might possibly have arrived at these figures. It seems that they just added up the census populations of the 17 provinces in the east and the southeast (for these provinces, see the note under Table 3 in this article), disregarding the presence of other ethnic groups in the area, especially in the eastern provinces; to this is added another half-million to 1 million to account for the Kurds in the western provinces. Izady's sweep of the population history of the Kurds is so great that he makes estimates of their number since 4000 B.C. However, data and evidence for such estimates are so scant that his figures can hardly be taken seriously. See Kendal (Nezan), "Kurdistan in Turkey," in People Without a Country. The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. G. Chaliand, trans. M. Pallis (London: Zed Press, 1980), 47-48, 102-3; David McDowall, "The Kurdish Question: A Historical Review," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (London and New York: Routledge, 1992), 32; Mehrdad Izady, The Kurds: A Concise Handbook (Washington, D.C.: Crane Russak, 1992), 113-19.
14. Kendal gives the number of Kurds in Turkey as 8.5 million for 1970, McDowall as 9.6 million for the late 1980s (apparently for 1985), and Izady as 13.65 million for 1990, accounting for 23.6 percent, 19 percent, and 24 percent of the total population in the respective years. It is not clear how they arrived at these figures, as they give neither the sources of data nor the method of estimation. But an examination of the census material suggests how they might possibly have arrived at these figures. It seems that they just added up the census populations of the 17 provinces in the east and the southeast (for these provinces, see the note under Table 3 in this article), disregarding the presence of other ethnic groups in the area, especially in the eastern provinces; to this is added another half-million to 1 million to account for the Kurds in the western provinces. Izady's sweep of the population history of the Kurds is so great that he makes estimates of their number since 4000 B.C. However, data and evidence for such estimates are so scant that his figures can hardly be taken seriously. See Kendal (Nezan), "Kurdistan in Turkey," in People Without a Country. The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. G. Chaliand, trans. M. Pallis (London: Zed Press, 1980), 47-48, 102-3; David McDowall, "The Kurdish Question: A Historical Review," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (London and New York: Routledge, 1992), 32; Mehrdad Izady, The Kurds: A Concise Handbook (Washington, D.C.: Crane Russak, 1992), 113-19.
15. Kendal gives the number of Kurds in Turkey as 8.5 million for 1970, McDowall as 9.6 million for the late 1980s (apparently for 1985), and Izady as 13.65 million for 1990, accounting for 23.6 percent, 19 percent, and 24 percent of the total population in the respective years. It is not clear how they arrived at these figures, as they give neither the sources of data nor the method of estimation. But an examination of the census material suggests how they might possibly have arrived at these figures. It seems that they just added up the census populations of the 17 provinces in the east and the southeast (for these provinces, see the note under Table 3 in this article), disregarding the presence of other ethnic groups in the area, especially in the eastern provinces; to this is added another half-million to 1 million to account for the Kurds in the western provinces. Izady's sweep of the population history of the Kurds is so great that he makes estimates of their number since 4000 B.C. However, data and evidence for such estimates are so scant that his figures can hardly be taken seriously. See Kendal (Nezan), "Kurdistan in Turkey," in People Without a Country. The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. G. Chaliand, trans. M. Pallis (London: Zed Press, 1980), 47-48, 102-3; David McDowall, "The Kurdish Question: A Historical Review," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (London and New York: Routledge, 1992), 32; Mehrdad Izady, The Kurds: A Concise Handbook (Washington, D.C.: Crane Russak, 1992), 113-19.
16. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
17. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
18. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
19. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
20. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
21. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
22. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
23. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
24. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
25. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
26. The Kurdish rebellions are not new; they have been going on since 1788. See Rafet Balli "Türkiye," in Kürt Dosyasi, ed. Rafet Balli (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991), 50, 82; Alpay Kabacali, Tarihimizde Kürtler ve Ayaklanmalari (İstanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1991); Celile Celil, XIX. Yüzyil Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Kürtler, trans. (from Russian) M. Demir (Ankara: Özge Yayinlari, 1992); Vecihi Timuroǧlu, Dersim Tarihi (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991); also Bayrak, Kürtler, passim, İsmet G. İmset, PKK: Ayrilikçi Şiddetin 20 Yili (1973-1992) (Ankara: Turkish Daily News Yayinlari, 1993), 373. For a concise account of the Kurdish question in Turkey since the birth of the Turkish Republic, and of the PKK, see Gunter, The Kurds, 12-19, 57-117. On the Kurds' demands for a separate or federated state, see the interviews conducted by Balli with Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the PKK, Mahmut Baksi; and Ahmet Zeki Okçuoǧlu in Balli, Kürt Dosyasi, 236, 144, 192, respectively. Although the militant groups want to secede from Turkey, support for this idea seems to be very limited among Kurds who are not of a socialistic and militant persuasion; see Taha Akyol, "Güneydoǧu Sorununda Diyarbakir Örneǧi;" Milliyet, 5 June 1993, 15. Some see autonomy for the Kurds as inevitable. For example see, Henri J. Barkey, "Turkey's Kurdish Dilemma," Survival 35 (4), 66-67. Abramowitz sees an autonomous Kurdish area in the southeast as "improbable," but reckons that "a serious federalism" may be needed: Abramowitz, "Dateline Ankara," 175-76.
27. Ahmet Taner Kişlali, "Burkay, Anter ve 'Çuvalini Seçmek'," Cumhuriyet, 25 August 1993, 2.
28. See Andrews, "Introduction," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey; Brass, "Ethnic Groups and the State," in Ethnic Groups and the State, 16-17; idem, "Ethnicity and Nationality Formation," Ethnicity 111.3 (1976): 225-28.
29. See Andrews, "Introduction," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey; Brass, "Ethnic Groups and the State," in Ethnic Groups and the State, 16-17; idem, "Ethnicity and Nationality Formation," Ethnicity 111.3 (1976): 225-28.
30. See Andrews, "Introduction," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey; Brass, "Ethnic Groups and the State," in Ethnic Groups and the State, 16-17; idem, "Ethnicity and Nationality Formation," Ethnicity 111.3 (1976): 225-28.
31. Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 20-27.
32. An example of an etic view of an ethnic group is provided by the case of Laz in Turkey. See M. E. Meeker, "The Black Sea Turks: Some Aspects of Their Ethnic and Cultural Background," International Journal of Middle East Studies 2 (1971): 321.
33. Uǧur Mumcu, Kürt-İslam Ayaklanmasi, 1919-1925, 7th printing (İstanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1993), 59; Robert Olson, Kürt Milliyetçiliǧinin Kaynaklari ve Şeyh Said İsyani, trans. Bülent Peker and Nevzat Kiraç (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 39; Burkay, Kürtler, 447; M. Nuri Dersimi, Dersim ve Kürt Milli Mücadelesine Dair Hatiratim (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 66, 123; İmset, interview with Öcalan in November 1991, PKK, 387; Balli, interviews with Öcalan and Burkay, in Kürt Dosyasi, 389, 402; Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 35.
34. Uǧur Mumcu, Kürt-İslam Ayaklanmasi, 1919-1925, 7th printing (İstanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1993), 59; Robert Olson, Kürt Milliyetçiliǧinin Kaynaklari ve Şeyh Said İsyani, trans. Bülent Peker and Nevzat Kiraç (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 39; Burkay, Kürtler, 447; M. Nuri Dersimi, Dersim ve Kürt Milli Mücadelesine Dair Hatiratim (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 66, 123; İmset, interview with Öcalan in November 1991, PKK, 387; Balli, interviews with Öcalan and Burkay, in Kürt Dosyasi, 389, 402; Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 35.
35. Uǧur Mumcu, Kürt-İslam Ayaklanmasi, 1919-1925, 7th printing (İstanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1993), 59; Robert Olson, Kürt Milliyetçiliǧinin Kaynaklari ve Şeyh Said İsyani, trans. Bülent Peker and Nevzat Kiraç (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 39; Burkay, Kürtler, 447; M. Nuri Dersimi, Dersim ve Kürt Milli Mücadelesine Dair Hatiratim (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 66, 123; İmset, interview with Öcalan in November 1991, PKK, 387; Balli, interviews with Öcalan and Burkay, in Kürt Dosyasi, 389, 402; Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 35.
36. Uǧur Mumcu, Kürt-İslam Ayaklanmasi, 1919-1925, 7th printing (İstanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1993), 59; Robert Olson, Kürt Milliyetçiliǧinin Kaynaklari ve Şeyh Said İsyani, trans. Bülent Peker and Nevzat Kiraç (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 39; Burkay, Kürtler, 447; M. Nuri Dersimi, Dersim ve Kürt Milli Mücadelesine Dair Hatiratim (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 66, 123; İmset, interview with Öcalan in November 1991, PKK, 387; Balli, interviews with Öcalan and Burkay, in Kürt Dosyasi, 389, 402; Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 35.
37. Uǧur Mumcu, Kürt-İslam Ayaklanmasi, 1919-1925, 7th printing (İstanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1993), 59; Robert Olson, Kürt Milliyetçiliǧinin Kaynaklari ve Şeyh Said İsyani, trans. Bülent Peker and Nevzat Kiraç (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 39; Burkay, Kürtler, 447; M. Nuri Dersimi, Dersim ve Kürt Milli Mücadelesine Dair Hatiratim (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 66, 123; İmset, interview with Öcalan in November 1991, PKK, 387; Balli, interviews with Öcalan and Burkay, in Kürt Dosyasi, 389, 402; Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 35.
38. Uǧur Mumcu, Kürt-İslam Ayaklanmasi, 1919-1925, 7th printing (İstanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1993), 59; Robert Olson, Kürt Milliyetçiliǧinin Kaynaklari ve Şeyh Said İsyani, trans. Bülent Peker and Nevzat Kiraç (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 39; Burkay, Kürtler, 447; M. Nuri Dersimi, Dersim ve Kürt Milli Mücadelesine Dair Hatiratim (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 66, 123; İmset, interview with Öcalan in November 1991, PKK, 387; Balli, interviews with Öcalan and Burkay, in Kürt Dosyasi, 389, 402; Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 35.
39. Uǧur Mumcu, Kürt-İslam Ayaklanmasi, 1919-1925, 7th printing (İstanbul: Tekin Yayinevi, 1993), 59; Robert Olson, Kürt Milliyetçiliǧinin Kaynaklari ve Şeyh Said İsyani, trans. Bülent Peker and Nevzat Kiraç (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 39; Burkay, Kürtler, 447; M. Nuri Dersimi, Dersim ve Kürt Milli Mücadelesine Dair Hatiratim (Istanbul: Özge Yayinlari, 1992), 66, 123; İmset, interview with Öcalan in November 1991, PKK, 387; Balli, interviews with Öcalan and Burkay, in Kürt Dosyasi, 389, 402; Andrews, "Introduction," Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 35.
40. Ziya Gökalp, Kürt Aşiretleri Hakkinda Sosyolojik Tetkikler (Istanbul: Sosyal Yayinlar, 1992), 24-25. Gökalp wrote the book, in the form of a report, circa 1922. Vladimir Minorsky, Kürtler, trans. Koral Yayinlari (from the French edition of Encyclopedia of Islam (Istanbul: Koral, 1992), 76-80. For the etic view of the Kurds as those speaking Kurdish in the 1930s, see İsmail Beşikçi, Kürtlerin Mecburi İskani (Ankara: Yurt Kitap, Yayin, 1991), 111-30; Ömer Vehbi Hatipoǧlu, Bir Başka Açidan Kürt Sorunu (Ankara: Mesaj Yayinlari, 1992), 37-40.
41. Ziya Gökalp, Kürt Aşiretleri Hakkinda Sosyolojik Tetkikler (Istanbul: Sosyal Yayinlar, 1992), 24-25. Gökalp wrote the book, in the form of a report, circa 1922. Vladimir Minorsky, Kürtler, trans. Koral Yayinlari (from the French edition of Encyclopedia of Islam (Istanbul: Koral, 1992), 76-80. For the etic view of the Kurds as those speaking Kurdish in the 1930s, see İsmail Beşikçi, Kürtlerin Mecburi İskani (Ankara: Yurt Kitap, Yayin, 1991), 111-30; Ömer Vehbi Hatipoǧlu, Bir Başka Açidan Kürt Sorunu (Ankara: Mesaj Yayinlari, 1992), 37-40.
42. Ziya Gökalp, Kürt Aşiretleri Hakkinda Sosyolojik Tetkikler (Istanbul: Sosyal Yayinlar, 1992), 24-25. Gökalp wrote the book, in the form of a report, circa 1922. Vladimir Minorsky, Kürtler, trans. Koral Yayinlari (from the French edition of Encyclopedia of Islam (Istanbul: Koral, 1992), 76-80. For the etic view of the Kurds as those speaking Kurdish in the 1930s, see İsmail Beşikçi, Kürtlerin Mecburi İskani (Ankara: Yurt Kitap, Yayin, 1991), 111-30; Ömer Vehbi Hatipoǧlu, Bir Başka Açidan Kürt Sorunu (Ankara: Mesaj Yayinlari, 1992), 37-40.
43. Ziya Gökalp, Kürt Aşiretleri Hakkinda Sosyolojik Tetkikler (Istanbul: Sosyal Yayinlar, 1992), 24-25. Gökalp wrote the book, in the form of a report, circa 1922. Vladimir Minorsky, Kürtler, trans. Koral Yayinlari (from the French edition of Encyclopedia of Islam (Istanbul: Koral, 1992), 76-80. For the etic view of the Kurds as those speaking Kurdish in the 1930s, see İsmail Beşikçi, Kürtlerin Mecburi İskani (Ankara: Yurt Kitap, Yayin, 1991), 111-30; Ömer Vehbi Hatipoǧlu, Bir Başka Açidan Kürt Sorunu (Ankara: Mesaj Yayinlari, 1992), 37-40.
44. Interview with Yaylm Erez, the president of the Union of Turkish Chambers of Commerce and Bourses at the time of the interview, "Doǧu'da Yeniden Yapilanma Lazim," Nokta, 6-12 June 1993, 21.
45. Interview with Dr. Kazim Taş, the owner of Ataköy Hospital and Martinez Hotel in Istanbul, "İstanbul'da Bulunmaktan Memnunum Ama . . . ," Nokta, 6-12 June 1993, 18.
46. Şeref Han, Şerefname: Kürt Tarihi, trans. (from Arabic) M. Emin Bozarslan, 3rd printing (Istanbul: Hasat Yayinlari, 1990), 34.
47. Gökalp reaches this judgment on the testimony of Şerefname; Gökalp, Kürt Aşiretleri, 95.
48. Ibid., 24-25.
49. H. Seliç, "Zaza Gerçeǧi," Tercüman, 26, 27, 28, 29, and 30 June 1993.
50. David N. MacKenzie, "The Role of the Kurdish Language in Ethnicity," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 541; Minorsky, Kürtler. This is also the view of Izady, The Kurds, 167, 169, 173-74. Kreyenbroek argues that North Kirmanci (also called Bâhdinâni), spoken mainly in Turkey and South Kirmanci, and Sorâni, spoken in Northern Iraq, are also two different languages, differing in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation: Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, 71-72. Hassanpour, however, leans toward the view that Zaza is a Kurdish language; See Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992), passim; see also his review of Nader Entessar's book Kurdish Ethnonationalism, idem, "Kurdish Studies: Orientalist, Positivist and Critical Approaches," Middle East Journal 47, 1 (Winter 1993): 120.
51. David N. MacKenzie, "The Role of the Kurdish Language in Ethnicity," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 541; Minorsky, Kürtler. This is also the view of Izady, The Kurds, 167, 169, 173-74. Kreyenbroek argues that North Kirmanci (also called Bâhdinâni), spoken mainly in Turkey and South Kirmanci, and Sorâni, spoken in Northern Iraq, are also two different languages, differing in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation: Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, 71-72. Hassanpour, however, leans toward the view that Zaza is a Kurdish language; See Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992), passim; see also his review of Nader Entessar's book Kurdish Ethnonationalism, idem, "Kurdish Studies: Orientalist, Positivist and Critical Approaches," Middle East Journal 47, 1 (Winter 1993): 120.
52. David N. MacKenzie, "The Role of the Kurdish Language in Ethnicity," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 541; Minorsky, Kürtler. This is also the view of Izady, The Kurds, 167, 169, 173-74. Kreyenbroek argues that North Kirmanci (also called Bâhdinâni), spoken mainly in Turkey and South Kirmanci, and Sorâni, spoken in Northern Iraq, are also two different languages, differing in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation: Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, 71-72. Hassanpour, however, leans toward the view that Zaza is a Kurdish language; See Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992), passim; see also his review of Nader Entessar's book Kurdish Ethnonationalism, idem, "Kurdish Studies: Orientalist, Positivist and Critical Approaches," Middle East Journal 47, 1 (Winter 1993): 120.
53. David N. MacKenzie, "The Role of the Kurdish Language in Ethnicity," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 541; Minorsky, Kürtler. This is also the view of Izady, The Kurds, 167, 169, 173-74. Kreyenbroek argues that North Kirmanci (also called Bâhdinâni), spoken mainly in Turkey and South Kirmanci, and Sorâni, spoken in Northern Iraq, are also two different languages, differing in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation: Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, 71-72. Hassanpour, however, leans toward the view that Zaza is a Kurdish language; See Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992), passim; see also his review of Nader Entessar's book Kurdish Ethnonationalism, idem, "Kurdish Studies: Orientalist, Positivist and Critical Approaches," Middle East Journal 47, 1 (Winter 1993): 120.
54. David N. MacKenzie, "The Role of the Kurdish Language in Ethnicity," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 541; Minorsky, Kürtler. This is also the view of Izady, The Kurds, 167, 169, 173-74. Kreyenbroek argues that North Kirmanci (also called Bâhdinâni), spoken mainly in Turkey and South Kirmanci, and Sorâni, spoken in Northern Iraq, are also two different languages, differing in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation: Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, 71-72. Hassanpour, however, leans toward the view that Zaza is a Kurdish language; See Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992), passim; see also his review of Nader Entessar's book Kurdish Ethnonationalism, idem, "Kurdish Studies: Orientalist, Positivist and Critical Approaches," Middle East Journal 47, 1 (Winter 1993): 120.
55. David N. MacKenzie, "The Role of the Kurdish Language in Ethnicity," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 541; Minorsky, Kürtler. This is also the view of Izady, The Kurds, 167, 169, 173-74. Kreyenbroek argues that North Kirmanci (also called Bâhdinâni), spoken mainly in Turkey and South Kirmanci, and Sorâni, spoken in Northern Iraq, are also two different languages, differing in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation: Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, 71-72. Hassanpour, however, leans toward the view that Zaza is a Kurdish language; See Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992), passim; see also his review of Nader Entessar's book Kurdish Ethnonationalism, idem, "Kurdish Studies: Orientalist, Positivist and Critical Approaches," Middle East Journal 47, 1 (Winter 1993): 120.
56. David N. MacKenzie, "The Role of the Kurdish Language in Ethnicity," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 541; Minorsky, Kürtler. This is also the view of Izady, The Kurds, 167, 169, 173-74. Kreyenbroek argues that North Kirmanci (also called Bâhdinâni), spoken mainly in Turkey and South Kirmanci, and Sorâni, spoken in Northern Iraq, are also two different languages, differing in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation: Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, 71-72. Hassanpour, however, leans toward the view that Zaza is a Kurdish language; See Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992), passim; see also his review of Nader Entessar's book Kurdish Ethnonationalism, idem, "Kurdish Studies: Orientalist, Positivist and Critical Approaches," Middle East Journal 47, 1 (Winter 1993): 120.
57. Andrews, "Catalogue," 122; Martin M. van Bruinessen, "The Ethnic Identity of the Kurds," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 613; Minorsky, Kürtler, 76-80; Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," 70; Izady, The Kurds, passim.
58. Andrews, "Catalogue," 122; Martin M. van Bruinessen, "The Ethnic Identity of the Kurds," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 613; Minorsky, Kürtler, 76-80; Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," 70; Izady, The Kurds, passim.
59. Andrews, "Catalogue," 122; Martin M. van Bruinessen, "The Ethnic Identity of the Kurds," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 613; Minorsky, Kürtler, 76-80; Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," 70; Izady, The Kurds, passim.
60. Andrews, "Catalogue," 122; Martin M. van Bruinessen, "The Ethnic Identity of the Kurds," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 613; Minorsky, Kürtler, 76-80; Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," 70; Izady, The Kurds, passim.
61. Andrews, "Catalogue," 122; Martin M. van Bruinessen, "The Ethnic Identity of the Kurds," in Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, 613; Minorsky, Kürtler, 76-80; Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," 70; Izady, The Kurds, passim.
62. Van Bruinessen, "Ethnic Identity," 619.
63. Ibid., 618, Gökalp, Kürt Aşiretleri, 32, 127-28.
64. Ibid., 618, Gökalp, Kürt Aşiretleri, 32, 127-28.
65. Van Bruinessen casts doubt on the census figures for two reasons. He argues that Kurds were either not counted at all, or some of the Kurds were excluded from enumeration as Kurds because of a narrow definition of "Kurd." He is possibly right in the first case, but is wrong in the reason he gives for underenumeration. Census officials are not sent out from the province centers, as he claims, but from the district centers, from which the villages are more easily accessible. See van Bruinessen, Şeyh, Aǧa ve Devlet, 33-34 and n. 4 in Section I, 389.
66. According to estimates by Shorter and Macura, the gross fertility rate - or births per thousand population - was 56 in 1945, 59.8 in 1955, and 56.2 in 1965 in the east, where the Kurds mainly live; it was 45.2, 46.7, and 42.3 for Turkey as a whole in the respective years. See Frederic C. Shorter and Miroslav Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişi (1935-1975): Doǧurganlik ve Ölümlülük Eǧilimleri (first published in English in 1982) (Ankara: Yurt Yayinlari, 1983), 57, 90.
67. Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of the Ottoman Anatolia and the End of the Empire (New York and London: New York University Press, 1983), 150 (n. 6), 160.
68. These are Mardin and Kahramanmaraş. McCarthy is of the opinion that in the 1927 census, Kurdish population was undercounted in Hakkari, Elaziǧ, and Mardin provinces; ibid., 107.
69. The progress of the times and increase in welfare is reflected in the decrease of the infant-mortality rate from 245 in 1951, to 189 in 1961, to 156 in 1967; see Shorter and Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişt 72.
70. Ruşen Keleş, Yerinden Yönetim ve Siyaset (Istanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 268-74; see also Teoman Yayin, Merkezi Hükümet ile Mahalli İdareler Arasindaki Mali İlişkiler (Ankara: DİE, 1971).
71. Ruşen Keleş, Yerinden Yönetim ve Siyaset (Istanbul: Cem Yayinevi, 1992), 268-74; see also Teoman Yayin, Merkezi Hükümet ile Mahalli İdareler Arasindaki Mali İlişkiler (Ankara: DİE, 1971).
72. A good example of overstatement of population by 100 percent is provided by the case of Kirikkale in the 1985 census; see Y. Keskin, "Kirikkale İl Olmaya Hazir," Dünya, 9 June 1989, 12.
73. The number of provinces was 67 from the 1955 to the 1985 censuses. By the 1990 census, however, there were 73 provinces.
74. The gross reproduction rate is the average number of female children a woman would have if she survived to the end of her childbearing years, and if, throughout, she were subject to a given set of age-specific fertility rates and a given sex ratio at birth.
75. Mean age of fertility is the average age at which a mortality-free cohort of women bear their children according to a set of age-specific fertility rates.
76. The total fertility rate is the average number of children that would be born per woman if all women lived to the end of their childbearing years and bore children according to a given set of age-specific fertility rates. This is also referred to as total fertility.
77. The model life table is an expression of typical mortality experience derived from a group of observed life tables. A life table lists the number of survivors at different ages - up to the highest age attained - in a hypothetical cohort subject from birth to a particular set of age-specific mortality rates. It is commonly accompanied by other features of the cohort's experience, such as expectation of life at each age and the probability of surviving from each age x to age x + n.
78. Shorter and Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişi, 89-90. For the definition of the various demographic terms used here, see Peter Cox, Demography, 5th ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976).
79. Shorter and Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişi, 89-90. For the definition of the various demographic terms used here, see Peter Cox, Demography, 5th ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976).
80. Her figures are corrected total fertility rates. The correction factor is
81. Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Sosyal Yapi-l: Türkiye'de Sosyal Yapisindaki Gelişmeler ve Uluslararasi Karşilaştirmalar, DPT no. 2054-SPB:396 (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1986), 165-66. For 1990, both the unadjusted and adjusted total fertility rates are given; the adjusted rates are used in this study.
82. Saǧlik ve Sosyal Yardim Bakanliǧi, Hifzisihha Okulu, Türkiye Nüfus Araştirmasindan Elde Edilen Hayati İstatistikler, 1966-67 (Ankara: Hacettepe Basimevi, 1970), 39, 46.
83. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Nüfus Etüdleri Enstitüsü, Türkiye'de Nüfus Yapisi ve Nüfus Sorunlari: 1973 Araştirmasi (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 1978); Hacettepe University, Institute of Population Studies, Turkish Fertility Survey, Vol. 1 (Ankara, circa 1982); idem, 1983 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara: 1987); idem, 1988 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara, 1989); Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Türkiye Nüfus Araştirmasi, 1974-75, yayin no. 841 (Ankara, 1978); idem, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, yayin no. 1483 (Ankara, 1991).
84. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Nüfus Etüdleri Enstitüsü, Türkiye'de Nüfus Yapisi ve Nüfus Sorunlari: 1973 Araştirmasi (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 1978); Hacettepe University, Institute of Population Studies, Turkish Fertility Survey, Vol. 1 (Ankara, circa 1982); idem, 1983 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara: 1987); idem, 1988 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara, 1989); Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Türkiye Nüfus Araştirmasi, 1974-75, yayin no. 841 (Ankara, 1978); idem, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, yayin no. 1483 (Ankara, 1991).
85. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Nüfus Etüdleri Enstitüsü, Türkiye'de Nüfus Yapisi ve Nüfus Sorunlari: 1973 Araştirmasi (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 1978); Hacettepe University, Institute of Population Studies, Turkish Fertility Survey, Vol. 1 (Ankara, circa 1982); idem, 1983 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara: 1987); idem, 1988 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara, 1989); Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Türkiye Nüfus Araştirmasi, 1974-75, yayin no. 841 (Ankara, 1978); idem, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, yayin no. 1483 (Ankara, 1991).
86. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Nüfus Etüdleri Enstitüsü, Türkiye'de Nüfus Yapisi ve Nüfus Sorunlari: 1973 Araştirmasi (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 1978); Hacettepe University, Institute of Population Studies, Turkish Fertility Survey, Vol. 1 (Ankara, circa 1982); idem, 1983 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara: 1987); idem, 1988 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara, 1989); Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Türkiye Nüfus Araştirmasi, 1974-75, yayin no. 841 (Ankara, 1978); idem, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, yayin no. 1483 (Ankara, 1991).
87. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Nüfus Etüdleri Enstitüsü, Türkiye'de Nüfus Yapisi ve Nüfus Sorunlari: 1973 Araştirmasi (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 1978); Hacettepe University, Institute of Population Studies, Turkish Fertility Survey, Vol. 1 (Ankara, circa 1982); idem, 1983 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara: 1987); idem, 1988 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara, 1989); Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Türkiye Nüfus Araştirmasi, 1974-75, yayin no. 841 (Ankara, 1978); idem, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, yayin no. 1483 (Ankara, 1991).
88. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Nüfus Etüdleri Enstitüsü, Türkiye'de Nüfus Yapisi ve Nüfus Sorunlari: 1973 Araştirmasi (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 1978); Hacettepe University, Institute of Population Studies, Turkish Fertility Survey, Vol. 1 (Ankara, circa 1982); idem, 1983 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara: 1987); idem, 1988 Turkish Population and Health Survey (Ankara, 1989); Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Türkiye Nüfus Araştirmasi, 1974-75, yayin no. 841 (Ankara, 1978); idem, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, yayin no. 1483 (Ankara, 1991).
89. The figure is from an empirical study by Yücetürk. See Alper Yücetürk, "Sex Ratio and Monthly Distribution of Births," in Turkish Demography: Proceedings of a Conference, ed. Frederic C. Shorter and Bozkurt Güvenç (Ankara: Hacettepe University, 1969), 167-73. In the most recent demographic survey, the ratio is slightly higher; Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, 43 (n. 2).
90. The figure is from an empirical study by Yücetürk. See Alper Yücetürk, "Sex Ratio and Monthly Distribution of Births," in Turkish Demography: Proceedings of a Conference, ed. Frederic C. Shorter and Bozkurt Güvenç (Ankara: Hacettepe University, 1969), 167-73. In the most recent demographic survey, the ratio is slightly higher; Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Turkish Demographic Survey 1989, 43 (n. 2).
91. In the model life tables, gross and net reproduction rates are coupled with the MAFSs of 27, 29, 31, and 33. In employing the tables to estimate growth rates, the MAFS nearest to the provincial MAFS was used.
92. Frederic C. Shorter, The Decline of Infant and Child Mortality: Estimates from the Turkish Census, MEAWARDS Regional Papers, no. 34 (Cairo: The Population Council, West Asia and North Africa, 1989), 19-20; UNICEF, Analysis of Children and Mothers: Situation in Turkey, draft 2 (Ankara: UNICEF, 28 February 1990) 2-12, 2-13; Government of Turkey-UNICEF Programme of Cooperation, The Situation Analysis of Mothers and Children in Turkey (Ankara: UNICEF Turkey Office, April 1991), appendix Table 6-1, 130.
93. Frederic C. Shorter, The Decline of Infant and Child Mortality: Estimates from the Turkish Census, MEAWARDS Regional Papers, no. 34 (Cairo: The Population Council, West Asia and North Africa, 1989), 19-20; UNICEF, Analysis of Children and Mothers: Situation in Turkey, draft 2 (Ankara: UNICEF, 28 February 1990) 2-12, 2-13; Government of Turkey-UNICEF Programme of Cooperation, The Situation Analysis of Mothers and Children in Turkey (Ankara: UNICEF Turkey Office, April 1991), appendix Table 6-1, 130.
94. Frederic C. Shorter, The Decline of Infant and Child Mortality: Estimates from the Turkish Census, MEAWARDS Regional Papers, no. 34 (Cairo: The Population Council, West Asia and North Africa, 1989), 19-20; UNICEF, Analysis of Children and Mothers: Situation in Turkey, draft 2 (Ankara: UNICEF, 28 February 1990) 2-12, 2-13; Government of Turkey-UNICEF Programme of Cooperation, The Situation Analysis of Mothers and Children in Turkey (Ankara: UNICEF Turkey Office, April 1991), appendix Table 6-1, 130.
95. A study on Turkish mortality patterns has found that it is best represented by the East Model Life Table among the Coale-Demeny Life Tables; see Shorter and Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişi, 70-71, 92-93; Ansley J. Coale and P. Demeny, Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966). There is, of course, no perfect fit between the two, and at least around 1960, the early child mortality in Turkey was considerably higher than that shown in the East Model Life Table; see P. Demeny and Frederic C. Shorter, Estimating Turkish Mortality, Fertility and Age Structure: Application of Some New Techniques (Istanbul: Istanbul University Press, 1968). This discrepancy decreased as infant mortality fell in Turkey in the 1970s and 1980s. Hence, the growth rate and population estimates for the 1970s and 1980s, using the East Model Life Tables, should give progressively more accurate figures.
96. A study on Turkish mortality patterns has found that it is best represented by the East Model Life Table among the Coale-Demeny Life Tables; see Shorter and Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişi, 70-71, 92-93; Ansley J. Coale and P. Demeny, Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966). There is, of course, no perfect fit between the two, and at least around 1960, the early child mortality in Turkey was considerably higher than that shown in the East Model Life Table; see P. Demeny and Frederic C. Shorter, Estimating Turkish Mortality, Fertility and Age Structure: Application of Some New Techniques (Istanbul: Istanbul University Press, 1968). This discrepancy decreased as infant mortality fell in Turkey in the 1970s and 1980s. Hence, the growth rate and population estimates for the 1970s and 1980s, using the East Model Life Tables, should give progressively more accurate figures.
97. A study on Turkish mortality patterns has found that it is best represented by the East Model Life Table among the Coale-Demeny Life Tables; see Shorter and Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişi, 70-71, 92-93; Ansley J. Coale and P. Demeny, Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966). There is, of course, no perfect fit between the two, and at least around 1960, the early child mortality in Turkey was considerably higher than that shown in the East Model Life Table; see P. Demeny and Frederic C. Shorter, Estimating Turkish Mortality, Fertility and Age Structure: Application of Some New Techniques (Istanbul: Istanbul University Press, 1968). This discrepancy decreased as infant mortality fell in Turkey in the 1970s and 1980s. Hence, the growth rate and population estimates for the 1970s and 1980s, using the East Model Life Tables, should give progressively more accurate figures.
98. The GRR in the Turkish Demographic Survey of 1989 for Region 1, which includes İstanbul, İzmir, and Bursa, is below the rate which would make for zero population growth under the mortality conditions in the mid-1980s; see Cerit, Türkiye'de Nüfus, 55.
99. The GRR in the Turkish Demographic Survey of 1989 for Region 1, which includes İstanbul, İzmir, and Bursa, is below the rate which would make for zero population growth under the mortality conditions in the mid-1980s; see Cerit, Türkiye'de Nüfus, 55.
100. Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Genel Nüfus sayimi, 12.10.1980. Daimi İkametgaha Göre İç Göçler (Ankara, 1985); idem, Genel Nüfus Sayimi, 20.10.1985. Daimi İkametgaha Göre İç Göçler (Ankara, 1989). Immigration and emigration data by province for 1970-85 are from Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Sosyal Yapi-l, 82-84; 1985-90 migration data were obtained from the State Institute of Statistics' computer files.
101. Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Genel Nüfus sayimi, 12.10.1980. Daimi İkametgaha Göre İç Göçler (Ankara, 1985); idem, Genel Nüfus Sayimi, 20.10.1985. Daimi İkametgaha Göre İç Göçler (Ankara, 1989). Immigration and emigration data by province for 1970-85 are from Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Sosyal Yapi-l, 82-84; 1985-90 migration data were obtained from the State Institute of Statistics' computer files.
102. Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Genel Nüfus sayimi, 12.10.1980. Daimi İkametgaha Göre İç Göçler (Ankara, 1985); idem, Genel Nüfus Sayimi, 20.10.1985. Daimi İkametgaha Göre İç Göçler (Ankara, 1989). Immigration and emigration data by province for 1970-85 are from Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Sosyal Yapi-l, 82-84; 1985-90 migration data were obtained from the State Institute of Statistics' computer files.
103. In the private file of Ayşe Gedik of Middle East Technical University, Ankara. She obtained them from the SIS in the 1970s and kindly made them available to me.
104. Ayşe Gedik, "Türkiye'deki İç Göçler, 1965-85; Bazi Varsayimlarin Sorgulanmasi," in Kent, Planlama, Politika, Sanat: Tarik Okyay Anisina Yazilar, ed. İlhan Tekeli (Ankara: METU, 1994), 220-23; Erol Tümertekin, Tu̇rkiye'de İç Göçler (İstanbul: İstanbul U̇niversitesi Yayini, 1968), 25-47, 60-74.
105. Ayşe Gedik, "Türkiye'deki İç Göçler, 1965-85; Bazi Varsayimlarin Sorgulanmasi," in Kent, Planlama, Politika, Sanat: Tarik Okyay Anisina Yazilar, ed. İlhan Tekeli (Ankara: METU, 1994), 220-23; Erol Tümertekin, Tu̇rkiye'de İç Göçler (İstanbul: İstanbul U̇niversitesi Yayini, 1968), 25-47, 60-74.
106. In addition to legal emigrants, there was a substantial stream of asylum seekers in European countries in the 1980s. According to one estimate, the number of asylum seekers was 57,913 in 1980; 20,020 in 1989; and 22,082 in 1986, 1987, and 1988; see Çalişma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanliǧi, Yurtdişi İşçi Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüǧü, 1990 Yili Raporu (Ankara, 1991), 8-9; G. Simon, "Migration in Southern Europe: An Overview," in The Future of Migration, OECD (Paris: OECD, 1987), 269.
107. In addition to legal emigrants, there was a substantial stream of asylum seekers in European countries in the 1980s. According to one estimate, the number of asylum seekers was 57,913 in 1980; 20,020 in 1989; and 22,082 in 1986, 1987, and 1988; see Çalişma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanliǧi, Yurtdişi İşçi Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüǧü, 1990 Yili Raporu (Ankara, 1991), 8-9; G. Simon, "Migration in Southern Europe: An Overview," in The Future of Migration, OECD (Paris: OECD, 1987), 269.
108. Bulutay gives the complete series on emigration of Turkish workers, emigration of population, stock of Turkish workers, and stock of population for the period 1961-90. His series is used in this study. See Tuncer Bulutay, External Migration in Turkey, draft (Ankara, 15 May 1992). For outflows of workers to Arab countries, use is also made of İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1991 Statistical Yearbook (Ankara: İİBK, 1992).
109. Bulutay gives the complete series on emigration of Turkish workers, emigration of population, stock of Turkish workers, and stock of population for the period 1961-90. His series is used in this study. See Tuncer Bulutay, External Migration in Turkey, draft (Ankara, 15 May 1992). For outflows of workers to Arab countries, use is also made of İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1991 Statistical Yearbook (Ankara: İİBK, 1992).
110. The annual data on Turkish births and deaths in the Western European and Arab countries by country are available for 1982-90 in SOPEMİ reports; see OECD, SOPEMİ (Systeme d'Observation Permanante des Migrations) (Paris: OECD, 1978-91); also, Yurtdişi İşçi Sorunlari Genel Müdürlüǧü, Yurtdişi İşçi Sorunlari, '81 (Ankara: Başbakanlik Basimevi), 18.
111. The following contain data for various years on the proportion of Turkish workers who were married, and on the ratio of married workers who had their spouses with them: N. Abadan-Unat, Bati Almanya'daki Türk İşçileri ve Sorunlari (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1964), 64; Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Yurt Dişindan Dönen İşçilerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Eǧilimleri Üzerinde Bir Çalişma (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1974), Tables 4 and 5; Ayşe Kudat, Stability and Change in the Turkish Family at Home and Abroad: Comparative Perspectives (Berlin: International Institute for Comparative Studies, 1975), 32-33; İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, '72 Örnekleme Araştirmasi: Almanya'da Çalişan Yabanci İşçilerin İstihdam. Aile ve İkamet Sorunlari, yayin no. 117 (Ankara: İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1974), 12-13; Ahmet Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi ve Türk Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankasi Kültür Yayinlari, 1978), 54; H. Heijecke, "The Labour Market Position of Migrants in Selected European Receiving Countries," in The Future of Migration, 183. Most of these contain information on the situation in Germany only; the conditions in Germany were assumed to hold for all European countries.
112. The following contain data for various years on the proportion of Turkish workers who were married, and on the ratio of married workers who had their spouses with them: N. Abadan-Unat, Bati Almanya'daki Türk İşçileri ve Sorunlari (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1964), 64; Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Yurt Dişindan Dönen İşçilerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Eǧilimleri Üzerinde Bir Çalişma (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1974), Tables 4 and 5; Ayşe Kudat, Stability and Change in the Turkish Family at Home and Abroad: Comparative Perspectives (Berlin: International Institute for Comparative Studies, 1975), 32-33; İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, '72 Örnekleme Araştirmasi: Almanya'da Çalişan Yabanci İşçilerin İstihdam. Aile ve İkamet Sorunlari, yayin no. 117 (Ankara: İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1974), 12-13; Ahmet Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi ve Türk Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankasi Kültür Yayinlari, 1978), 54; H. Heijecke, "The Labour Market Position of Migrants in Selected European Receiving Countries," in The Future of Migration, 183. Most of these contain information on the situation in Germany only; the conditions in Germany were assumed to hold for all European countries.
113. The following contain data for various years on the proportion of Turkish workers who were married, and on the ratio of married workers who had their spouses with them: N. Abadan-Unat, Bati Almanya'daki Türk İşçileri ve Sorunlari (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1964), 64; Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Yurt Dişindan Dönen İşçilerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Eǧilimleri Üzerinde Bir Çalişma (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1974), Tables 4 and 5; Ayşe Kudat, Stability and Change in the Turkish Family at Home and Abroad: Comparative Perspectives (Berlin: International Institute for Comparative Studies, 1975), 32-33; İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, '72 Örnekleme Araştirmasi: Almanya'da Çalişan Yabanci İşçilerin İstihdam. Aile ve İkamet Sorunlari, yayin no. 117 (Ankara: İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1974), 12-13; Ahmet Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi ve Türk Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankasi Kültür Yayinlari, 1978), 54; H. Heijecke, "The Labour Market Position of Migrants in Selected European Receiving Countries," in The Future of Migration, 183. Most of these contain information on the situation in Germany only; the conditions in Germany were assumed to hold for all European countries.
114. The following contain data for various years on the proportion of Turkish workers who were married, and on the ratio of married workers who had their spouses with them: N. Abadan-Unat, Bati Almanya'daki Türk İşçileri ve Sorunlari (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1964), 64; Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Yurt Dişindan Dönen İşçilerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Eǧilimleri Üzerinde Bir Çalişma (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1974), Tables 4 and 5; Ayşe Kudat, Stability and Change in the Turkish Family at Home and Abroad: Comparative Perspectives (Berlin: International Institute for Comparative Studies, 1975), 32-33; İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, '72 Örnekleme Araştirmasi: Almanya'da Çalişan Yabanci İşçilerin İstihdam. Aile ve İkamet Sorunlari, yayin no. 117 (Ankara: İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1974), 12-13; Ahmet Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi ve Türk Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankasi Kültür Yayinlari, 1978), 54; H. Heijecke, "The Labour Market Position of Migrants in Selected European Receiving Countries," in The Future of Migration, 183. Most of these contain information on the situation in Germany only; the conditions in Germany were assumed to hold for all European countries.
115. The following contain data for various years on the proportion of Turkish workers who were married, and on the ratio of married workers who had their spouses with them: N. Abadan-Unat, Bati Almanya'daki Türk İşçileri ve Sorunlari (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1964), 64; Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Yurt Dişindan Dönen İşçilerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Eǧilimleri Üzerinde Bir Çalişma (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1974), Tables 4 and 5; Ayşe Kudat, Stability and Change in the Turkish Family at Home and Abroad: Comparative Perspectives (Berlin: International Institute for Comparative Studies, 1975), 32-33; İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, '72 Örnekleme Araştirmasi: Almanya'da Çalişan Yabanci İşçilerin İstihdam. Aile ve İkamet Sorunlari, yayin no. 117 (Ankara: İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1974), 12-13; Ahmet Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi ve Türk Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankasi Kültür Yayinlari, 1978), 54; H. Heijecke, "The Labour Market Position of Migrants in Selected European Receiving Countries," in The Future of Migration, 183. Most of these contain information on the situation in Germany only; the conditions in Germany were assumed to hold for all European countries.
116. The following contain data for various years on the proportion of Turkish workers who were married, and on the ratio of married workers who had their spouses with them: N. Abadan-Unat, Bati Almanya'daki Türk İşçileri ve Sorunlari (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1964), 64; Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Yurt Dişindan Dönen İşçilerin Sosyo-Ekonomik Eǧilimleri Üzerinde Bir Çalişma (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1974), Tables 4 and 5; Ayşe Kudat, Stability and Change in the Turkish Family at Home and Abroad: Comparative Perspectives (Berlin: International Institute for Comparative Studies, 1975), 32-33; İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, '72 Örnekleme Araştirmasi: Almanya'da Çalişan Yabanci İşçilerin İstihdam. Aile ve İkamet Sorunlari, yayin no. 117 (Ankara: İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, 1974), 12-13; Ahmet Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi ve Türk Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankasi Kültür Yayinlari, 1978), 54; H. Heijecke, "The Labour Market Position of Migrants in Selected European Receiving Countries," in The Future of Migration, 183. Most of these contain information on the situation in Germany only; the conditions in Germany were assumed to hold for all European countries.
117. The data on the origins of workers in Germany by home region for 1961-73 are from Ayşe Kudat, Yilmaz Özkan, and Yaşar Öncü, "Yurtdişina Işçi Göçünün Yöresel Boyutlari," The 2nd Turkish Demography Conference, Tables 12 and 13, Map 1; Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi, 278. The regional data were disaggregated to provinces on the assumption that the number of workers and their dependents emigrating from a province in a particular region was proportioned to the ratio of that province's population to the region's population. For the period 1974-77, for which no data by origin exist, it was assumed that the provincial pattern of emigration of workers was the same as that of 1978-80. The totals were distributed to provinces accordingly.
118. The data on the origins of workers in Germany by home region for 1961-73 are from Ayşe Kudat, Yilmaz Özkan, and Yaşar Öncü, "Yurtdişina Işçi Göçünün Yöresel Boyutlari," The 2nd Turkish Demography Conference, Tables 12 and 13, Map 1; Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi, 278. The regional data were disaggregated to provinces on the assumption that the number of workers and their dependents emigrating from a province in a particular region was proportioned to the ratio of that province's population to the region's population. For the period 1974-77, for which no data by origin exist, it was assumed that the provincial pattern of emigration of workers was the same as that of 1978-80. The totals were distributed to provinces accordingly.
119. The data on the origins of workers by province for 1978-90 are from İş ve İşçi Bulma Kurumu, İstatistik Yilliǧi, annual issues for 1978-90.
120. Gökdere develops a series on returnee workers for 1962-73, and Bulutay for 1961-90. See, Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi, 102, Table 11.38; Bulutay, External Migration in Turkey, 115, table 5.5 and 119, table 5.9. However, for the years 1961 to 1973, Bulutay, whose series is used in the study, does not take into consideration the growth of the Turkish population due to births. To rectify this omission, the formula given in Appendix B of this article was used to estimate the returnee population during 1965-73.
121. Gökdere develops a series on returnee workers for 1962-73, and Bulutay for 1961-90. See, Gökdere, Yabanci Ülkelere İşgücü Akimi, 102, Table 11.38; Bulutay, External Migration in Turkey, 115, table 5.5 and 119, table 5.9. However, for the years 1961 to 1973, Bulutay, whose series is used in the study, does not take into consideration the growth of the Turkish population due to births. To rectify this omission, the formula given in Appendix B of this article was used to estimate the returnee population during 1965-73.
122. One scholar observed that the fertility rates of Turkish emigrants were 2.6 to 3.2 times higher than that of the Germans during 1975-81; see D. Maillat, "Long Term Aspects of International Migration Flows," in The Experience of European Receiving Countries, OECD, 47.
123. This is not entirely true because of the existence of illegal workers, students, and asylum seekers. It is highly probable that the provincial origins of asylum seekers were different from those of workers. Especially in the 1980s, according to press reports, besides real political refugees, people from the east and southeast of the country seeking work were posing as political refugees to get in. This may well have introduced biases in our calculation of the provincial origins of outflows from Turkey.
124. The workers in Arab countries are mostly employed by Turkish contractors. When the work is completed, the workers have to return because of the visa conditions. Personal communication with the contractors indicates that a contract takes about three years to complete.
125. The method followed here may underestimate the number of Kurds in these large provinces, because the census ratio of the Kurds to total population in any one of these selected provinces is lower than the estimated one. However, the underestimate arising from this is probably so slight as to be negligible, so no second round was attempted.
126. The infant-mortality rate was 280 in eastern Anatolia in 1945, whereas it was 190 in İstanbul and İzmir. By 1965. it had fallen to 108 in İstanbul and İzmir. But it was still 187 in the east; Shorter and Macura, Türkiye'de Nüfus Artişt, 77, 101.
127. The number of public-housing units built for the refugees from Bulgaria in various provinces, as of August 1994, was: Adana, 50; Ankara, 1,544; Balikesir, 500; Bursa, 7,218; Edirne, 220; Erzurum, 40; Eskişehir, 1,200; İstanbul, 5,050; İzmir, 2,040; Kocaeli, 1,000; Kütahya, 44; Manisa, 240; Sakarya, 1,000; Tekirdaǧ, 1,410. The data are from the state ministry responsible for Bulgarian refugee affairs.
128. Burkay, Kürtler ve Kürdistan, 24. In his interview with Imset, Öcalan claimed, "Half of Istanbul is now Kurdish"; see Imset, PKK, 374. The perception that half of the Kurds now live in the west, despite lacking an objective basis, is very prevalent among politicians and in the press.
129. Burkay, Kürtler ve Kürdistan, 24. In his interview with Imset, Öcalan claimed, "Half of Istanbul is now Kurdish"; see Imset, PKK, 374. The perception that half of the Kurds now live in the west, despite lacking an objective basis, is very prevalent among politicians and in the press.
130. Burkay, Kürtler ve Kürdistan, 24. In his interview with Imset, Öcalan claimed, "Half of Istanbul is now Kurdish"; see Imset, PKK, 374. The perception that half of the Kurds now live in the west, despite lacking an objective basis, is very prevalent among politicians and in the press.
131. The number of Kurds of Turkish citizenship living abroad has not been analyzed here. A recent article by Robins puts their number in Western Europe at 500,000, See Philip Robins, "The Overlord State: Turkish Policy and The Kurdish Issue," International Affairs 69, 4 (1993): 662-63. However, an analysis of the origin of workers by region - and of the number of asylum seekers, especially in the 1980s - indicates that Robins's number is too high. The majority of workers in Europe were from the western regions where the Kurds did not live in substantial numbers. On the regional origin of workers, see the references in n. 53 of this article.
132. If the Kurdish population increases at the 1965-90 rate, at 3.24 percent per annum, it will reach 9.74 million by the year 2000 and will constitute 13.82 percent of the total population, assuming that the non-Kurdish component of the population increases at the 1965-90 average rate of 2.17 percent per annum.
133. In 1960, 11.45 percent of the population lived in a province other than the one in which he/she was born. This had risen to 12.80 percent in 1965, and to 20.95 percent by 1985. The percentages are calculated from the data in the 1960, 1965 and 1985 issues of Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, Nüfusun Sosyal ve Ekonomik Nitelikleri, 71, 32, and 59, respectively by year.