Sex and gender issues and venous thromboembolism

Clinics in Chest Medicine

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 281-297

  Moores, Lisa ^a   Bilello, Kathryn L ^b   Murin, Susan ^c,d  

^a WALTER REED ARMY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ESTROGEN; GESTAGEN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5 DEFICIENCY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFECT; HORMONAL THERAPY; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; LUNG FUNCTION TEST; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; POPULATION RESEARCH; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEX DIFFERENCE; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS; THROMBOPHILIA; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 1942476533     PISSN: 02725231     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2004.01.013     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. White R.H. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Circulation. 107(23 Suppl 1):2003;14-18.
2. Silverstein M.D., Heit J.A., Mohr D.N., Petterson T.M., O'Fallon W.M., Melton L.J. III Trends in the incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a 25-year population-based study. Arch Intern Med. 158:1998;585-593.
3. Hansson P.O., Welin L., Tibblin G., Eriksson H. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in the general population. The study of men born in 1913. Arch Intern Med. 157:1997;1665-1670.
4. Crowther M.A., Kelton J.G. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 138:2003;128-134.
5. Ginsberg J.S., Brill-Edwards P., Johnston M.et al. Relationship of antiphospholipid antibodies to pregnancy loss in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a cross-sectional study. Blood. 80:1992;975-980.
6. Runchey S.S., Folsom A.R., Tsai M.Y., Cushman M., McGovern P.D. Anticardiolipin antibodies as a risk factor for venous thromboembolism in a population-based prospective study. Br J Haematol. 119:2002;1005-1010.
7. Lilienfeld D.E. Decreasing mortality from pulmonary embolism in the United States, 1979-1996. Int J Epidemiol. 29:2000;465-469.
8. White R.H., Zhou H., Romano P.S. Incidence of idiopathic deep venous thrombosis and secondary thromboembolism among ethnic groups in California. Ann Intern Med. 128:1998;737-740.
9. Anderson F.A. Jr., Wheeler H.B., Goldberg R.J.et al. A population-based perspective of the hospital incidence and case-fatality rates of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. The Worcester DVT study. Arch Intern Med. 151:1991;933-938.
10. Kniffin W.D., Baron J.A., Barratt J., Birkmeyer J.D., Anderson F.A. The epidemiology of diagnosed pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis in the elderly. Arch Intern Med. 154:1994;861-866.
11. Tsai A.W., Cushman M., Rosamond W.D., Heckbert S.R., Polak J.F., Folsom A.R. Cardiovascular risk factors and venous thromboembolism incidence: the longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology. Arch Intern Med. 162:2002;1182-1189.
12. Fowkes F.J., Price J.F., Fowkes F.G. Incidence of diagnosed deep vein thrombosis in the general population: systematic review. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 25:2003;1-5.
13. Murin S., Romano P.S., White R.H. Comparison of outcomes after hospitalization for deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost. 88:2002;407-414.
14. Holmstrom M., Lindmarker P., Granqvist S., Johnsson H., Lockner D. A 6-month venographic follow-up in 164 patients with acute deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 78:1997;803-807.
15. Siddique R.M., Amini S.B., Connors A.F. Jr., Rimm A.A. Race and sex differences in long-term survival rates for elderly patients with pulmonary embolism. Am J Public Health. 88:1998;1476-1480.
16. Samkoff J.S., Comstock G.W. Epidemiology of pulmonary embolism: mortality in a general population. Am J Epidemiol. 114:1981;488-496.
17. Rosendaal F.R., Helmerhorst F.M., Vandenbroucke J.P. Female hormones and thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 22(2):2002;201-210.
18. Farmer R.D., Lawrenson R.A., Todd J.C.et al. A comparison of the risks of venous thromboembolic disease in association with different combined oral contraceptives. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 49(6):2000;580-590.
19. Vandenbroucke J.P., Rosing J., Bloemenkamp K.W.et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 344(20):2001;1527-1535.
20. Weiss G. Risk of venous thromboembolism with third-generation oral contraceptives: a review. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 180(2 Pt 2):1999;295-301.
21. Westhoff C.L. Oral contraceptives and thrombosis: an overview of study methods and recent results. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 179(3 Pt 2):1998;S38-S42.
22. Douketis J.D., Ginsberg J.S., Holbrook A., Crowther M., Duku E.K., Burrows R.F. A reevaluation of the risk for venous thromboembolism with the use of oral contraceptives and hormone replacement therapy. Arch Intern Med. 157(14):1997;1522-1530.
23. Lidegaard O., Edstrom B., Kreiner S. Oral contraceptives and venous thromboembolism: a five-year national case-control study. Contraception. 65(3):2002;187-196.
24. Rosendaal F.R., Helmerhorst F.M., Vandenbroucke J.P. Oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy and thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 86(1):2001;112-123.
25. Mammen E.F. Oral contraceptive pills and hormonal replacement therapy and thromboembolic disease. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 14(5):2000;1045-1059. vii-viii.
26. Levi M., Middeldorp S., Buller H.R. Oral contraceptives and hormonal replacement therapy cause an imbalance in coagulation and fibrinolysis which may explain the increased risk of venous thromboembolism. Cardiovasc Res. 41(1):1999;21-24.
27. Jespersen J. Plasma resistance to activated protein C: an important link between venous thromboembolism and combined oral contraceptives - a short review. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 1(1):1996;3-11.
28. Rosing J., Middeldorp S., Curvers J.et al. Low-dose oral contraceptives and acquired resistance to activated protein C: a randomised cross-over study. Lancet. 354(9195):1999;2036-2040.
29. Bloemenkamp K.W., Rosendaal F.R., Helmerhorst F.M., Koster T., Bertina R.M., Vandenbroucke J.P. Hemostatic effects of oral contraceptives in women who developed deep-vein thrombosis while using oral contraceptives. Thromb Haemost. 80(3):1998;382-387.
30. Lawrenson R., Farmer R. Venous thromboembolism and combined oral contraceptives: does the type of progestogen make a difference? Contraception. 62(2 Suppl):2000;21S-28S. discussion 37S-38S.
31. Walker A.M. Newer oral contraceptives and the risk of venous thromboembolism. Contraception. 57(3):1998;169-181.
32. Hennessy S., Berlin J.A., Kinman J.L., Margolis D.J., Marcus S.M., Strom B.L. Risk of venous thromboembolism from oral contraceptives containing gestodene and desogestrel versus levonorgestrel: a meta-analysis and formal sensitivity analysis. Contraception. 64(2):2001;125-133.
33. Kemmeren J.M., Algra A., Grobbee D.E. Third generation oral contraceptives and risk of venous thrombosis: meta-analysis. BMJ. 323(7305):2001;131-134.
34. Pabinger I., Schneider B. Thrombotic risk of women with hereditary antithrombin III-, protein C- and protein S-deficiency taking oral contraceptive medication. The GTH Study Group on Natural Inhibitors. Thromb Haemost. 71(5):1994;548-552.
35. Aznar J., Gilabert J. Oral contraceptive users and screening of factor V Leiden. Thromb Haemost. 81(5):1999;845-846.
36. Vandenbroucke J.P., van der Meer F.J., Helmerhorst F.M., Rosendaal F.R. Factor V Leiden: should we screen oral contraceptive users and pregnant women? BMJ. 313(7065):1996;1127-1130.
37. Cosmi B., Legnani C., Bernardi F., Coccheri S., Palareti G. Value of family history in identifying women at risk of venous thromboembolism during oral contraception: observational study. BMJ. 322(7293):2001;1024-1025.
38. Aznar J., Mira Y., Vaya A., Ferrando F., Villa P. Is family history sufficient to identify women with risk of venous thromboembolism before commencing the contraceptive pill? Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 8(2):2002;139-141.
39. Nightingale A.L., Lawrenson R.A., Simpson E.L., Williams T.J., MacRae K.D., Farmer R.D. The effects of age, body mass index, smoking and general health on the risk of venous thromboembolism in users of combined oral contraceptives. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 5(4):2000;265-274.
40. Hulley S., Grady D., Bush T.et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA. 280(7):1998;605-613.
41. Effects of estrogen or estrogen/progestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. The Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) Trial. The Writing Group for the PEPI Trial. JAMA. 273(3):1995;199-208.
42. Herrington D.M., Reboussin D.M., Brosnihan K.B.et al. Effects of estrogen replacement on the progression of coronary-artery atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med. 343(8):2000;522-529.
43. Miller J., Chan B.K., Nelson H.D. Postmenopausal estrogen replacement and risk for venous thromboembolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 136(9):2002;680-690.
44. Hoibraaten E., Qvigstad E., Arnesen H., Larsen S., Wickstrom E., Sandset P.M. Increased risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism during hormone replacement therapy - results of the randomized, double-blind, placebo- controlled estrogen in venous thromboembolism trial (EVTET). Thromb Haemost. 84(6):2000;961-967.
45. Hulley S., Furberg C., Barrett-Connor E.et al. Noncardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA. 288(1):2002;58-66.
46. Rossouw J.E., Anderson G.L., Prentice R.L.et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 288(3):2002;321-333.
47. Hoibraaten E., Qvigstad E., Andersen T.O., Mowinckel M.C., Sandset P.M. The effects of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on hemostatic variables in women with previous venous thromboembolism - results from a randomized, double-blind, clinical trial. Thromb Haemost. 85(5):2001;775-781.
48. Lowe G.D., Rumley A., Woodward M., Reid E., Rumley J. Activated protein C resistance and the FV:R506Q mutation in a random population sample - associations with cardiovascular risk factors and coagulation variables. Thromb Haemost. 81(6):1999;918-924.
49. Douketis J.D., Gordon M., Johnston M., Julian J.A., Adachi J.R., Ginsberg J.S. The effects of hormone replacement therapy on thrombin generation, fibrinolysis inhibition, and resistance to activated protein C: prospective cohort study and review of literature. Thromb Res. 99(1):2000;25-34.
50. De Mitrio V., Marino R., Cicinelli E.et al. Beneficial effects of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy with transdermal estradiol on sensitivity to activated protein C. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 11(2):2000;175-182.
51. Hoibraaten E., Mowinckel M.C., de Ronde H., Bertina R.M., Sandset P.M. Hormone replacement therapy and acquired resistance to activated protein C: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Br J Haematol. 115(2):2001;415-420.
52. McLeod D. Hormonal therapy: historical perspective to future directions. Urology. 61(Suppl 2A):2003;3-7.
53. Scarabin P., Oger E., Plu-Bureau G. Differential association of oral and transdermal oestrogen-replacement therapy with venous thromboembolsim risk. Lancet. 362:2003;428-432.
54. Lowe G., Woodward M., Vessey M., Rumley A., Gough P., Daly E. Thrombotic variables and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism in women aged 45-64 years. Relationships to hormone replacement therapy. Thromb Haemost. 83:2000;530-535.
55. Fisher B., Costantino J.P., Wickerham D.L.et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 90(18):1998;1371-1388.
56. Veronesi U., Maisonneuve P., Costa A.et al. Prevention of breast cancer with tamoxifen: preliminary findings from the Italian randomised trial among hysterectomised women. Italian Tamoxifen Prevention Study. Lancet. 352(9122):1998;93-97.
57. Powles T., Eeles R., Ashley S.et al. Interim analysis of the incidence of breast cancer in the Royal Marsden Hospital tamoxifen randomised chemoprevention trial. Lancet. 352(9122):1998;98-101.
58. Meier C.R., Jick H. Tamoxifen and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 45(6):1998;608-612.
59. Cummings S.R., Eckert S., Krueger K.A.et al. The effect of raloxifene on risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: results from the MORE randomized trial. Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation. JAMA. 281(23):1999;2189-2197.
60. Cushman M., Costantino J.P., Bovill E.G.et al. Effect of tamoxifen on venous thrombosis risk factors in women without cancer: the Breast Cancer Prevention Trial. Br J Haematol. 120(1):2003;109-116.
61. Weitz I.C., Israel V.K., Liebman H.A. Tamoxifen-associated venous thrombosis and activated protein C resistance due to factor V Leiden. Cancer. 79(10):1997;2024-2027.
62. Treffers P.E., Huidekoper B.L., Weenink G.H., Kloosterman G.J. Epidemiological observations of thrombo-embolic disease during pregnancy and in the puerperium, in 56,022 women. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 21:1983;327-331.
63. Heit J.A., Silverstein M.D., Mohr D.N.et al. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism in the community. Thromb Haemost. 86:2001;452-463.
64. Berg C.J., Atrash H.K., Koonin L.M., Tucker M. Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 1987-1990. Obstet Gynecol. 88:1996;161-167.
65. De Swiet M. Maternal mortality: confidential enquires into maternal deaths in the United Kingdom. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 182:2000;760-766.
66. Stirling Y., Woolf L., North W.R., Seghatchian M.J., Meade T.W. Haemostasis in normal pregnancy. Thromb Haemost. 52:1984;176-182.
67. Woodhams B.J., Candotti G., Shaw R., Kernoff P.B. Changes in coagulation and fibrinolysis during pregnancy: evidence of activation of coagulation preceding spontaneous abortion. Thromb Res. 55:1989;99-107.
68. Faught W., Garner P., Jones G., Ivey B. Changes in protein C and protein S levels in normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 172:1995;147-150.
69. Clark P., Brennand J., Conkie J.A., McCall F., Greer I.A., Walker I.D. Activated protein C sensitivity, protein C, protein S and coagulation in normal pregnancy. Thromb Haemost. 79:1998;1166-1170.
70. Wright J.G., Cooper P., Astedt B.et al. Fibrinolysis during normal human pregnancy: complex inter-relationships between plasma levels of tissue plasminogen activator and inhibitors and the euglobulin clot lysis time. Br J Haematol. 69:1988;253-258.
71. Toglia M.R., Weg J.G. Venous thromboembolism during pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 335:1996;108-114.
72. Bates S.M., Ginsberg J.S. How we manage venous thromboembolism during pregnancy. Blood. 100:2002;3470-3478.
73. Chan W.S., Ginsberg J.S. Diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in pregnancy. Thromb Res. 107:2002;85-91.
74. Andres R.L., Miles A. Venous thromboembolism and pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 28:2001;613-630.
75. Greer I.A. Thrombosis in pregnancy: maternal and fetal issues. Lancet. 353:1999;1258-1265.
76. Hyers T.M. Venous thromboembolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 159:1999;1-14.
77. Tapson V.F., Carroll B.A., Davidson B.L.et al. The diagnostic approach to acute venous thromboembolism. Clinical practice guideline. Am Thorac Soc Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 160:1999;1043-1066.
78. Greer I.A. The acute management of venous thromboembolism in pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 13:2001;569-575.
79. Wells P.S., Hirsh J., Anderson D.R.et al. Accuracy of clinical assessment of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 345:1995;1326-1330.
80. Authors N. Value of the ventilation/perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism. Results of the prospective investigation of pulmonary embolism diagnosis (PIOPED). The PIOPED Investigators. JAMA. 263:1990;2753-2759.
81. Hull R.D., Raskob G.E., Carter C.J. Serial impedance plethysmography in pregnant patients with clinically suspected deep-vein thrombosis. Clinical validity of negative findings. Ann Intern Med. 112:1990;663-667.
82. Chan W.S., Ray J.G., Murray S., Coady G.E., Coates G., Ginsberg J.S. Suspected pulmonary embolism in pregnancy: clinical presentation, results of lung scanning, and subsequent maternal and pediatric outcomes. Arch Intern Med. 162:2002;1170-1175.
83. Ginsberg J.S., Brill-Edwards P., Burrows R.F.et al. Venous thrombosis during pregnancy: leg and trimester of presentation. Thromb Haemost. 67:1992;519-520.
84. Gherman R.B., Goodwin T.M., Leung B., Byrne J.D., Hethumumi R., Montoro M. Incidence, clinical characteristics, and timing of objectively diagnosed venous thromboembolism during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 94:1999;730-734.
85. Ginsberg J.S., Hirsh J., Rainbow A.J., Coates G. Risks to the fetus of radiologic procedures used in the diagnosis of maternal venous thromboembolic disease. Thromb Haemost. 61:1989;189-196.
86. Doll R., Wakeford R. Risk of childhood cancer from fetal irradiation. Br J Radiol. 70:1997;130-139.
87. Kanal E. Pregnancy and the safety of magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 2:1994;309-317.
88. Fraser D.G., Moody A.R., Morgan P.S., Martel A.L., Davidson I. Diagnosis of lower-limb deep venous thrombosis: a prospective blinded study of magnetic resonance direct thrombus imaging. Ann Intern Med. 136:2002;89-98.
89. Perrier A., Desmarais S., Miron M.J.et al. Non-invasive diagnosis of venous thromboembolism in outpatients. Lancet. 353:1999;190-195.
90. Wells P.S., Anderson D.R., Rodger M.et al. Excluding pulmonary embolism at the bedside without diagnostic imaging: management of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism presenting to the emergency department by using a simple clinical model and d-dimer. Ann Intern Med. 135:2001;98-107.
91. Perrier A., Bounameaux H. Cost-effective diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost. 86:2001;475-487.
92. Hull R.D., Raskob G.E., Coates G., Panju A.A., Gill G.J. A new noninvasive management strategy for patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med. 149:1989;2549-2555.
93. Powell T., Muller N.L. Imaging of acute pulmonary thromboembolism: should spiral computed tomography replace the ventilation-perfusion scan? Clin Chest Med. 24:2003;29-38.
94. Rathbun S.W., Raskob G.E., Whitsett T.L. Sensitivity and specificity of helical computed tomography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 132:2000;227-232.
95. Mullins M.D., Becker D.M., Hagspiel K.D., Philbrick J.T. The role of spiral volumetric computed tomography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med. 160:2000;293-298.
96. Lorut C., Ghossains M., Horellou M.H., Achkar A., Fretault J., Laaban J.P. A noninvasive diagnostic strategy including spiral computed tomography in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 162:2000;1413-1418.
97. Perrier A., Howarth N., Didier D.et al. Performance of helical computed tomography in unselected outpatients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. 135:2001;88-97.
98. Winer-Muram H.T., Boone J.M., Brown H.L., Jennings S.G., Mabie W.C., Lombardo G.T. Pulmonary embolism in pregnant patients: fetal radiation dose with helical CT. Radiology. 224:2002;487-492.
99. Ginsberg J.S., Greer I., Hirsh J. Use of antithrombotic agents during pregnancy. Chest. 119:2001;122S-131S.
100. Ginsberg J.S., Kowalchuk G., Hirsh J., Brill-Edwards P., Burrows R. Heparin therapy during pregnancy. Risks to the fetus and mother. Arch Intern Med. 149:1989;2233-2236.
101. Sanson B.J., Lensing A.W., Prins M.H.et al. Safety of low-molecular-weight heparin in pregnancy: a systematic review. Thromb Haemost. 81:1999;668-672.
102. Dahlman T.C. Osteoporotic fractures and the recurrence of thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium in 184 women undergoing thromboprophylaxis with heparin. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 168:1993;1265-1270.
103. Dulitzki M., Pauzner R., Langevitz P., Pras M., Many A., Schiff E. Low-molecular-weight heparin during pregnancy and delivery: preliminary experience with 41 pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol. 87:1996;380-383.
104. Horlocker T.T., Wedel D.J. Spinal and epidural blockade and perioperative low molecular weight heparin: smooth sailing on the Titanic. Anesth Analg. 86:1998;1153-1156.
105. Brenner B.R., Nowak-Gottl U., Kosch A., Manco-Johnson M., Laposata M. Diagnostic studies for thrombophilia in women on hormonal therapy and during pregnancy, and in children. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 126:2002;1296-1303.
106. Sibai B.M. Thrombophilias and adverse outcomes of pregnancy - what should a clinician do? N Engl J Med. 340:1999;50-52.
107. Many A., Schreiber L., Rosner S., Lessing J.B., Eldor A., Kupferminc M.J. Pathologic features of the placenta in women with severe pregnancy complications and thrombophilia. Obstet Gynecol. 98:2001;1041-1044.
108. Preston F.E., Rosendaal F.R., Walker I.D.et al. Increased fetal loss in women with heritable thrombophilia. Lancet. 348:1996;913-916.
109. Ridker P.M., Miletich J.P., Buring J.E.et al. Factor V Leiden mutation as a risk factor for recurrent pregnancy loss. Ann Intern Med. 128:1998;1000-1003.
110. Kupferminc M.J., Eldor A., Steinman N.et al. Increased frequency of genetic thrombophilia in women with complications of pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 340:1999;9-13.
111. Martinelli I., Taioli E., Cetin I.et al. Mutations in coagulation factors in women with unexplained late fetal loss. N Engl J Med. 343:2000;1015-1018.
112. Martinelli I., De Stefano V., Taioli E., Paciaroni K., Rossi E., Mannucci P.M. Inherited thrombophilia and first venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and puerperium. Thromb Haemost. 87:2002;791-795.
113. Many A., Elad R., Yaron Y., Eldor A., Lessing J.B., Kupferminc M.J. Third-trimester unexplained intrauterine fetal death is associated with inherited thrombophilia. Obstet Gynecol. 99:2002;684-687.
114. Friederich P.W., Sanson B.J., Simioni P.et al. Frequency of pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism in anticoagulant factor-deficient women: implications for prophylaxis. Ann Intern Med. 125:1996;955-960.
115. Gerhardt A., Scharf R.E., Beckmann M.W.et al. Prothrombin and factor V mutations in women with a history of thrombosis during pregnancy and the puerperium. N Engl J Med. 342:2000;374-380.
116. Ogunyemi D., Cuellar F., Ku W., Arkel Y. Association between inherited thrombophilias, antiphospholipid antibodies, and lipoprotein a levels and venous thromboembolism in pregnancy. Am J Perinatol. 20:2003;17-24.
117. Lockwood C.J. Inherited thrombophilias in pregnant patients: detection and treatment paradigm. Obstet Gynecol. 99:2002;333-341.
118. Saade G.R., McLintock C. Inherited thrombophilia and stillbirth. Semin Perinatol. 26(1):2002;51-69.
119. McColl M.D., Ellison B.R. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2000.
120. Long A.A., Ginsberg J.S., Brill-Edwards P.et al. The relationship of antiphospholipid antibodies to thromboembolic disease in systemic lupus erythematosus: a cross-sectional study. Thromb Haemost. 66:1991;520-524.
121. Kearon C., Gent M., Hirsh J.et al. A comparison of three months of anticoagulation with extended anticoagulation for a first episode of idiopathic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 340:1999;901-907.
122. Brill-Edwards P., Ginsberg J.S., Gent M.et al. Safety of withholding heparin in pregnant women with a history of venous thromboembolism. Recurrence of Clot in This Pregnancy Study Group. N Engl J Med. 343:2000;1439-1444.
123. Greer I.A. Prevention and management of venous thromboembolism in pregnancy. Clin Chest Med. 24(1):2003;123-137.