Functional fluoropolymers for fuel cell membranes

Progress in Polymer Science (Oxford)

Volumn 30, Issue 6, 2005, Pages 644-687

  Souzy, Renaud ^a   Ameduri, Bruno ^a  

^a INSTITUT CHARLES GERHARDT   (France)

Author keywords

Chemical modification; Conductivity; Copolymerization; Direct methanol fuel cell; Fluoropolymers; Membranes; PEMFC; Perfluorinated sulfonic acid membrane

Indexed keywords

CHEMICAL MODIFICATION; COPOLYMERIZATION; ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY; FILLERS; FLUORINE CONTAINING POLYMERS; MEMBRANES; METHANOL; SYNTHESIS (CHEMICAL);

ALIPHATIC MONOMERS; DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS; PEMFC; PERFLUORINATED SULFONIC ACID MEMBRANES;

FUEL CELLS;

EID: 19344378862     PISSN: 00796700     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2005.03.004     Document Type: Review

References (353)

1. W.G. Grot Perfluorinated ion exchange polymers and their use in research and industry Macromol Symp 82 1994 161 172
2. S. Thomas, and M. Zalbowitz Fuel cells: green power 1999 Los Alamos National Lab www.Education.Lanl.Gov/Resources/Fuelcells
3. D.E. Curtin, R.D. Lousenberg, T.J. Henry, P.C. Tangeman, and M.E. Tisack Advanced materials for improved PEMFC performances and life J Power Sour 131 2004 41 48
4. R. Dillon, S. Srinivasan, A.S. Arico, and V. Antonucci International activities in DFMC R&D: status of technologies and potential applications J Power Sour 127 2004 112 126
5. M.A. Hickner, H. Ghassemi, Y.S. Kim, B.R. Einsla, and J.E. McGrath Alternative polymer systems for proton exchange membranes Chem Rev 104 2004 4587 4612
6. K.D. Kreuer On the development of proton conducting materials for technological applications Solid State Ionics 97 1997 1 18
7. W. Vielstich, A. Hubert, M. Gasteiger, and A. Lamm Handbook of fuel cells - fundamentals, technology and applications; fuel cell technology and applications 2003 Wiley New York
8. Q. Li, R. He, J.O. Jensen, and N.J. Bjerrum Approaches and recent development of polymer electrolyte membranes for fuel cells operating above 100 °C Chem Mater 15 2003 4896 4915
9. J.A. Kerres Development of ionomer membranes for fuel cells J Membr Sci 185 2001 3 27
10. O. Savadogo Emerging membranes for electrochemical systems: (I) solid polymer electrolyte membranes for fuel cell systems J New Mat Electrochem Syst 1 1998 47 66
11. K.D. Kreuer On the development of proton conducting polymer membranes for hydrogen and methanol fuel cells J Membr Sci 185 2001 29 39
12. D. Jones, and J. Roziere Recent advances in the functionalization of polybenzimidazole and polyetherketone for fuel cell applications J Membr Sci 185 2001 41 62 [and in Ref. [3] vol. 3 p. 447-63]
13. M. Rikukawa, and K. Sanui Proton-conducting polymer electrolyte membranes based on hydrocarbon polymers Prog Polym Sci 25 2000 1463 1473
14. G. Inzelt, M. Pineri, J.W. Schultze, and M.A. Vorontyntsev Electron and proton conducting polymers: recent developments and prospects Electrochem Acta 45 2000 2403 2410
15. Kreuer KD. New polymeric systems for fuel cell membranes. In Ref. [3], vol. 3, p. 420-46.
16. D'Alelio G. Ion exchangers. US Patent 2,366,007; 1944 (General Electrical).
17. J.M. Abrams High-porosity polystyrene cation-exchange resins Ind Eng Chem 48 1956 1469 1475
18. K. Prater The renaissance of the solid polymer fuel cell J Power Sour 29 1990 239 248
19. Faure S, Mercier R, Aldebert P, Pineri M, Sillion B. Sulfonated polyimides, membranes and fuel cells, PCT WO 9742253; 1997 (CEA).
20. C. Genies, R. Mercier, B. Sillion, N. Cornet, G. Gebel, and M. Pineri Soluble sulfonated naphthalenic polyimides as materials for proton exchange membranes Polymer 42 2001 359 373
21. C. Genies, R. Mercier, B. Sillion, R. Petiaud, N. Cornet, and G. Gebel Stability study of sulfonated phthalic and naphthalenic polyimide structures in aqueous medium Polymer 42 2001 5097 5105
22. S. Besse, P. Capron, O. Diat, F. Jousse, D. Marsacq, and M. Pineri Sulfonated polyimides for fuel cell electrode membrane assemblies J New Mat Electrochem Syst 2 2002 109 112
23. X. Guo, J. Fang, T. Watari, K. Tanaka, H. Kita, and K.I. Okamoto Novel sulfonated polyimides as polyelectrolytes for fuel cell application. 2. Synthesis and proton conductivity of polyimides from 9,9-bis(4-aminophenyl) fluorene-2,7-disulfonic acid Macromolecules 35 2002 6707 6713
24. B.R. Einsla, Y.T. Hong, Y.S. Kim, F. Wang, N. Gunduz, and J.E. McGrath Sulfonated naphthalene dianhydride based polyimide copolymers for proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells. I. Monomer and copolymer synthesis J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42 2004 862 874
25. W. Essafi, G. Gebel, and R. Mercier Sulfonated polyimide ionomers: a structural study Macromolecules 37 2004 1431 1440
26. R. Nolte, K. Ledjeff, M. Bauer, and R. Mülhaupt Partially sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) - a versatile proton conducting membrane material for modern energy conversion technologies J Membr Sci 83 1993 211 220
27. G. Alberti, M. Casciola, L. Massinelli, and B. Bauer Polymeric proton conducting membranes for medium temperature fuel cells (110-160 °C) J Membr Sci 185 2001 73 81
28. S. Kaliaguine, S.D. Mikhailenko, K.P. Wang, P. Xing, G. Robertson, and M. Guiver Properties of SPEEK based PEMs for fuel cell application Catal Today 82 2003 213 222
29. R. Nolte, K. Ledjeff, M. Bauer, and R. Mülhaupt Modified polysulfones as membrane electrolytes Conf Ser Publ 3 1993 381 389
30. P. Genova-Dimitrova, B. Baradie, D. Foscallo, C. Poinsignon, and J.Y. Sanchez Ionomeric membranes for proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC): sulfonated polysulfone associated with phosphatoantimonic acid J Membr Sci 185 2001 59 71
31. F. Wang, M. Hickner, Q. Ji, W. Harrison, J. Mecham, and T.A. Zawodzinski Synthesis of highly sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) random (statistical) copolymers via direct polymerization Macromol Symp 175 2001 387 395
32. K. Miyatake, and A.S. Hay Synthesis and proton conductivities of phosphonic acid containing poly-(arylene ether)s J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 39 2001 3211 3226
33. G. Xiao, G. Sun, D. Yan, P. Zhu, and P. Tao Synthesis of sulfonated poly(phthalazinone ether sulfone)s by direct polymerization Polymer 43 2002 5335 5339
34. F. Wang, M. Hickner, Y.S. Kim, T.A. Zawodzinski, and J.E. McGrath Direct polymerization of sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) random (statistical) copolymers: candidates for new proton exchange membranes J Membr Sci 197 2002 231 242
35. B. Lafitte, L.E. Karlsson, and P. Jannasch Sulfo-phenylation of polysulfones for proton-conducting fuel cell membranes Macromol Rapid Commun 23 2002 896 900
36. W. Harrison, F. Wang, J.B. Mecham, V. Bhanu, M. Hill, and Y.S. Kim Influence of the bisphenol structure on the direct synthesis of sulfonated poly(arylene ether) copolymers J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 41 2003 2264 2276
37. B.R. Einsta, and J.E. MacGrath Synthesis and characterizations of hydroxy-functionalized poly(arylene ether sulfone)s and conversion to proton conducting membranes for fuel cells Prepr Symp (Am Chem Soc, Div Fuel Cell Chem) 49 2004 601 602
38. C. Tchatchoua, W. Harrison, B.R. Einsta, M. Sankin, Y.S. Kim, and B. Pivovar Novel sulfonated proton exchange membranes for fuel cell applications: partially fluorinated copolymers Prepr Symp (Am Chem Soc, Div Fuel Cell Chem) 49 2004 616 618
39. Helmer-Metzman F, Osan F, Schneller A, Ritter H, Ledjeff K, Nolte R, et al. Preparation of sulfonated aromatic polyether ketones as polyelectrolyte membranes European Patent 574,791,A2; 1993.
40. B. Bauer, D.J. Jones, J. Roziere, L. Tchicaya, G. Alberti, and M. Casciola Electrochemical characterisation of sulfonated polyetherketone membranes J New Mater Electrochem Syst 3 2000 93 98
41. S.M.J. Zaidi, S.D. Mikhailenko, G.P. Robertson, M.D. Guiver, and S. Kaliaguine Proton conducting composite membranes from polyether ether ketone and heteropolyacids for fuel cell applications J Membr Sci 173 2000 17 34
42. R.Y.M. Huang, P. Shao, C.M. Burns, and X. Feng Sulfonation of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK): kinetic study and characterization J Appl Polym Sci 82 2001 2651 2660
43. Y. Gao, G.P. Robertson, M.D. Guiver, X. Jian, S.D. Mikhailenko, and K. Wang Direct copolymerization of sulfonated poly(phthalazinone arylene ether)s for proton-exchange-membrane materials J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 41 2003 2731 2742
44. P. Xing, G.P. Robertson, M.D. Guiver, S.D. Mikhailenko, and S. Kaliaguine Sulfonated poly(aryl ether ketone)s containing naphthalene moieties obtained by direct copolymerization as novel polymers for proton exchange membranes J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42 2004 2866 2876
45. P. Xing, G.P. Robertson, M.D. Guiver, S.D. Mikhailenko, K. Wang, and S.D. Kaliaguine Synthesis and characterization of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) for proton exchange membranes J Membr Sci 229 2004 95 106
46. B. Adams, and E. Holmes Adsorptive properties of synthetic resins J Soc Chem Ind 54 1935 17 27
47. Hay AS. Process of making poly-(2,6-diaryl-1,4-phenylene ethers). US Patent 3,432,466; 1969 (General Electrical).
48. Hodgdon RB, Hay AS. Sulfonated aryl-substituted polyphenylene ether ion exchange membranes. US Patent 3,528,858; 1970 (General Electrical).
49. Leninivin C. Elaboration et validation de dérivés polyparaphenylène substitués sulfonés comme électrolyte solide pour piles à combustible à membrane échangeuse de protons, PhD dissertation, Poitiers University, France; 2003
50. Balland-Longeau A, Pereira F, Capron P, Mercier R. Polyméres de type polyphenylène, leur procédé de préparation, membrane et dispositif de pile à combustible comprenant ces membranes. Fr Patent 0,210,008; 2002 (Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique).
51. T. Kobayashi, M. Rikukawa, K. Sanui, and N. Ogata Proton-conducting polymers derived from poly(ether-etherketone) and poly(4-phenoxybenzoyl-1,4- phenylene) Solid State Ionics 106 1998 219 225
52. H. Ghassemi, G. Ndip, and J.E. McGrath New multiblock copolymers of sulfonated poly(4′-phenyl-2,5-benzophenone) and poly(arylene ether sulfone) for proton exchange membranes. II Polymer 45 2004 5855 5862
53. I. Xiao, and I. Cabasso Preliminary study of phosphonate ion exchange membranes for PEM fuel cells Polym Mater Sci Eng (Am Chem Soc, Div PMSE) 68 1993 55 56
54. E.J. Powers, and G.A. Serad R.B. Seymour G.S. Kirshenbaum History and development of polybenzimidazoles. High performance polymers: their origin and development 1986 Elsevier Amsterdam 355 373
55. T.D. Dang, S.J. Bai, D.P. Heberer, F.E. Arnold, and R.J. Spry Ionic conductivity of conjugated water-soluble rigid-rod polymers J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 31 1993 1941 1950
56. J.A. Asensio, S. Borros, and P. Gomez-Romero Proton-conducting polymers based on benzimidazoles and sulfonated benzimidazoles J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 40 2002 3703 3710
57. J. Roziere, and D.J. Jones Non-fluorinated polymer materials for proton exchange membrane fuel cells Annu Rev Mater Res 33 2003 503 536
58. I. Gautier-Luneau, A. Denoyelle, J.Y. Sanchez, and C. Poinsignon Organic-inorganic protonic polymer electrolytes as membrane for low-temperature fuel cell Electrochim Acta 37 1992 1615 1623
59. H.R. Allcock, M.A. Hofmann, C.M. Ambler, S.N. Lvov, X.Y. Zhou, and E. Chalkova Phenyl phosphonic acid functionalized poly[aryloxyphosphazenes] as proton-conducting membranes for direct methanol fuel cells J Membr Sci 201 2002 47 54
60. H.R. Allcock, M.A. Hofmann, C.M. Ambler, and R.V. Morford Phenylphosphonic acid functionalized poly[aryloxyphosphazenes] Macromolecules 35 2002 3484 3489
61. (c) Allcock HR, Lvov SN. Design, synthesis, and performance of new proton-conducting membranes based on phosphazene platform, Advances in materials for proton exchange membranes fuel cell systems, Alisomar Conference, Grounds; Feb 23-26 2003 (Preprint #8).
62. L. Wall Fluoropolymers 1972 Wiley New York
63. A.E. Fiering Fluoroplastics R.E. Banks B. Smart J.C. Tatlow Organofluorine chemistry: principles and applications 15 1994 Plenum Press New York 339 362
64. K. Johns, and G. Stead Fluoroproducts - the extremophiles J Fluorine Chem 104 2000 5 16
65. J. Scheirs Modern fluoropolymers J. Scheirs 1997 Wiley New York
66. G. Ajroldi Structural and physical properties of some fluoropolymers Chim Ind 79 1997 483 496
67. G. Hougham, P. Cassidy, K. Jonhs, and T. Davidson Fluoropolymers 1999 Kluvert New York
68. Ebnesajjad S. Fluoroplastics, (non-)melt processible fluoroplastics. Norwich, NY, Plastic design library, handbook series, vols. 1 and 2; 2000.
69. B. Ameduri, and B. Boutevin Well-architectured fluoropolymers: synthesis, properties and applications 2004 Elsevier Amsterdam
70. T. Imae Fluorinated polymers Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 8 2003 308 315
71. B. Ameduri, B. Boutevin, and G. Kostov Fluoroelastomers: synthesis, properties and applications Progr Polym Sci 26 2001 105 187
72. Ameduri B, Boutevin B. Update in fluoroelastomers: from perfluoroelastomers to fluorosilicones and fluorophosphazenes. J Fluorine Chem 2005; 126:221-9.
73. M. Vecellio Opportunities and developments in fluoropolymeric coatings Prog Org Coatings 40 2000 225 242
74. K. Wood The effect of the fluoropolymer architecture on the exterior weathering of coatings Macromol Symp 187 2002 469 479
75. V. Castelvetro, M. Aglietto, F. Ciardelli, O. Chiantore, M. Lazzari, and L. Toniolo Structure control, coating properties, and durability of fluorinated acrylic-based polymers J Coatings Technol 74 2002 57 66
76. R. Bongiovanni, F. Montefusco, A. Priola, N. Macchioni, S. Lazzeri, and L. Sozzi High peformance UV-cured coatings for wood protection Prog Org Coatings 45 2002 359 363
77. R. Bongiovanni, F. Montefusco, A. Priola, N. Macchioni, S. Lazzeri, and L. Sozzi Photocurable wood coatings containing fluorinated monomers Eur Coatings, Pitture Vernici 11 2003 25 30
78. Jariwala CP, Eggleston JD, Yandrasit SMA, Dams RJ. Alkylated fluorochemical oligimers and use thereof. US Patent 6,288,157; 2003 (3M).
79. F. Ciardelli, M. Aglietto, L. di Mirabello, R. Montagnini, E. Passaglia, and S. Gianscristoforo New fluorinated acrylic polymers for improving weatherability of building stone materials Prog Org Coatings 32 1997 43 50
80. V. Castelvetro, M. Aglietto, F. Ciardelli, O. Chiantore, and M. Lazzari Design for fluorinated acrylic-based polymers as water repellent intrinsically photostable coating materials for stone D.G. Castner D.W. Grainger Proceedings of the Amer Chem Soc symposium series 787 'Fluorinated surfaces, Coatings, and Films', Washington, DC vol. 10 2001 129 142
81. Head RA, Johnson S. Coating compositions for optical fibers. Eur Patent Appl 260,842; 1988 (Imperial Chem Industries PLC, UK).
82. Barraud J, Gervat S, Ratovelomanana V, Boutevin B, Parisi JP, Cahuzac A, Octeur RJ. Cladding compositions for optical fibres. French Patent 9,204,222; 1992 (Alcatel).
83. Schuman PD. Curable, inter-polymer optical fiber cladding compositions. PCT Int Appl WO 9603609 A1; 1996 (Optical Polymer Research, Inc).
84. J.P. Youngblood, L. Andruzzi, C.K. Ober, A. Hexemer, E.J. Kramer, and J.A. Callow Coatings based on side-chain ether-linked poly(ethylene glycol) and fluorocarbon polymers for the control of marine biofouling Biofouling 19 2003 91 98
85. Boutevin B, Pietrasanta Y. Les Acrylates et Polyacrylates Fluorés: Dérivés et Applications. Puteaux (Fr), Erec; 1988.
86. C.M. Timperley, R.E. Arbon, M. Bird, S.A. Brewer, M.W. Parry, and D.J. Sellers Bis(fluoroalkyl)acrylic and methacrylic phosphate monomers, their polymers and some of their properties J Fluorine Chem 121 2003 23 31
87. M. Doyle, and G. Rajendran Perfluorinated membranes W. Vielstich A. Hubert M. Gasteiger A. Lamm Handbook of fuel cells - fundamentals, technology and applications; fuel cell technology and applications vol. 3(30) 2003 Wiley New York 351 395
88. E. Kissa Fluorinated surfactant: synthesis, preparations, applications 1994 Dekker M New York
89. M. Pabon, and J.M. Corpart Fluorinated surfactants: synthesis, properties, effluent treatment J Fluorine Chem 114 2002 149 156
90. C.K. Ober, K. Douki, V.R. Vohra, Y.J. Kwark, X.Q. Liu, and W. Conley New strategies for high resolution photoresists J Photopolym Sci Technol 15 2002 603 611
91. S. Kishimura, M. Endo, and M. Sasago Dissolution characteristics of acidic groups for 157-nm resists J Photopolym Sci Technol 15 2002 625 628
92. A.E. Feiring, E.R. Wonchoba, B.E. Fischel, T.V. Thieu, and M.R. Nassirpour Amorphous fluoropolymers from tetrafluoroethylene and bulky vinyl esters or vinyl ethers J Fluorine Chem 118 2002 95 98
93. V.R. Vohra, X.Q. Liu, K. Douki, C.K. Ober, W. Conley, and P. Zimmerman Fluoropolymer resists for 157 nm lithography Proc SPIE, Int Soc Opt Eng 2003 539 547
94. A.E. Feiring, M.K. Crawford, W.B. Farnham, J. Feldman, R.H. French, and K.W. Leffew Design of very transparent fluoropolymer resists for semiconductor manufacture at 157 nm J Fluorine Chem 122 2003 11 16
95. F.C. Krebs, and T. Jensen Fluorinated molecules relevant to conducting polymer research J Fluorine Chem 120 2003 77 84
96. LaConti AB. Power systems for small underwater vehicules. MIT, Marine Industry Collegium; 1998.
97. V. Arcella, A. Ghielmi, and G. Tommasi High performance perfluoropolymer films for membranes Ann NY Acad Sci 984 2003 226 244
98. Gibbs HH, Vienna VW, Griffin RN. US Patent 3,041,317; 1962 (DuPont de Nemours).
99. Connolly DJ, Gresham WF. Sulfo derivatives of perfluorovinyl ether monomers. USP 3,282,875; 1966 (E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company).
100. Carl WP, Ezzel BR. Low equivalent weight sulfonic fluoropolymers. US Patent 4,940,525; 1990 (Dow Chemical Co.).
101. D.E. Curtin, R.D. Lousenberg, T.J. Henry, P.C. Tangeman, and M.E. Tisack Advance materials for improved PEMFC performance and life J Power Sour 131 2004 41 48
102. Yamabe M, Miyake H, Arai K. Fluoropolymer cation-exchange membranes. Japanese Patent 5,228,588; 1977 (Asahi Glass Co.).
103. C.G. Krespan, and D.C. England Perfluoroallyl fluorosulfate, a reactive new perfluoroallylating agent J Am Chem Soc 103 1981 5598 5603
104. G. Kostov, S. Kotov, G.D. Ivanov, and D. Todorova Study of the synthesis of perfluorovinyl-sulfonic functional monomer and its copolymerization with tetrafluoroethylene J Appl Polym Sci 47 1993 735 743
105. T. Nguyen, and C. Wakselman A new route to perfluorinated sulfonic acid resin intermediates Eur Polym J 27 1991 435 441
106. DesMarteau DD. Copolymers of tetrafluoroethylene and perfluorinated sulfonyl monomers and membranes made therefrom. US Patent 5,463,005; 1995 (Gas Research Institute).
107. R.E. Banks, G.M. Haslam, R.N. Haszeldine, and A. Peppin Perfluoroalkyl derivatives of sulfur. VIII. Synthesis and reactions of perfluoroethylenesulfonyl fluoride J Chem Soc 1966 C1171 C1178
108. Navarrini W, DesMarteau DD. US Patent 5,103,049; 1992 (Ausimont S.p.A.).
109. R. Chen, M. Mohtasham, and G. Gard Iodofluoroalkylsulfonyl fluorides-synthesis and conversion to new derivatives J Fluorine Chem 43 1989 329 335
110. O. Paleta, A. Pošta, and F. Liška Haloacrylic acids. IX. Laboratory scale production of some trifluoroacrylic acid derivatives Sb Sk Chem Technol Praze C25 1978 105 110
111. Ezzel BR, Carl WP. Low equivalent weight sulfonic fluoropolymers. European Patent EP 289,869; 1988 (Dow Chemical Corp.).
112. DuPont. British Patent Appl. 2,081,267A.
113. Ezzel BR, Carl WP. Novel polymers having acid functionality. US Patent 4,330,654; 1980 (Dow Chemical Co.).
114. B. Moore, and C.R. Martin Morphology and chemical properties of the Dow persulfonate ionomers Macromolecules 22 1989 3594 3599
115. H. Ukihashi, M. Yamabe, and H. Mikaye Polymeric fluorocarbon acids and their applications Progr Polym Sci 12 1986 229 263
116. (b) Asahi Glass Co. Ltd, Japanese Patent 5,761,339.
117. H. Ukihashi, and M. Yamabe Perfluorocarboxylate polymer membranes A. Eisenberg H.L. Yeager Perfluorinated ionomer membranes, Washington, American Chemical Society symposium series vol. 17 1982 427 451
118. M. Yamabe, K. Akiyama, Y. Akatsuda, and M. Kato Novel phosphonated perfluorocarbon polymers Eur Polym J 36 2000 1035 1046
119. S.D. Petersen, W.M. Qiu, S. Kotov, and D.J. Burton The synthesis of phosphonate ester containing fluorinated vinyl ethers J Org Chem 61 1996 8024 8032
120. S.V. Kotov, S.D. Petersen, W. Qiu, Z.M. Qiu, and D.J. Burton Preparation of perfluorocarbon polymers containing phosphonic acid groups J Fluorine Chem 82 1997 13 22
121. Tatemoto M, Nakamura T. Preparation of fluorine-containing vinylphosphonic acid esters. Japanese Patent 02,304,096, 1990
122. (Chem. Abst. 1990, 114:247535) (Daikin Industries Ltd).
123. M. Seko, S. Ogawa, and K. Kimoto Perfluorocarboxylic acid membrane and membrane chlor-alkali process developed by Asahi Chemical industry A. Eisenberg H.L. Yeager Perfluorinated ionomer membranes, Washington, American Chemical Society symposium series 180 vol. 15 1982 365 410
124. Y.E. Kirsh, S.A. Smirnov, Y.M. Popkov, and S.F. Timashev Carbon-chain perfluorinated copolymers with functional groups and related cation-exchange membranes: synthesis, structure, and properties Uspekhi Khim 59 1990 970 976
125. B.V. Mislavski Fluorinated polymers with functional groups P.E. Cassidy G. Hougham K. Johns T. Davidson Fluoropolymers: synthesis vol. 1, chapter 7 1999 Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publisher New York 91 110
126. L. Dunsch, L. Kavan, and J. Weber Perfluoro anion-exchange polymeric films on glassy carbon electrodes J Electroanal Chem 280 1990 313 325
127. A. Eisenberg, and H.L. Yaeger Perfluorinated ionomer membranes American Chemical Society symposium series vol. 180 1982 ACS Washington, DC
128. Trainham JA. US Patent 5,411,641; 1993 (DuPont de Nemours and Company).
129. H.L. Yeager, and A.A. Gronowski Membrane applications M.R. Tant K.A. Mauritz G.L. Wilkes Ionomers Synthesis, structure, properties, and applications 1995 333 364
130. H.F. Gibbard Batteries versus fuel cells: the application of a disruptive technology In: Proceedings of the eyes for fuel cells conference on fuel cells for portable applications, Boston, USA, September 2002
131. Cooley GE, D'Agostino VF. Cation exchange membranes and method for the preparation of such membranes. US Patent 5,626,731; 1995 (National Power PLC).
132. Moya W. Surface modified polymeric substrate and process. US Patent 6,179,132; 1998 (Millipore corporation).
133. T. Naylor, and V.D. Rapra Polymer membranes-materials, structures and separation performance Rev Report 8 1996 39 58
134. ®) catalysis in synthesis Synthesis 7 1986 513 531
135. C. Heitner-Wirguin Recent advances in perfluorinated ionomer membranes: structure, properties and applications J Membr Sci 120 1996 1 12
136. K.A. Mauritz, and R.B. Moore State of understanding of Nafion Chem Rev 104 2004 4535 4585
137. Q. Guo, P.N. Pintauro, H. Tang, and S. O'Connor Sulfonated and crosslinked polyphosphazene-based proton-exchange membranes J Membr Sci 154 1999 175 183
138. J. Yu, B. Yi, D. Xing, F. Liu, Z. Shao, and Y. Fu Development of novel self-humidifying composite membranes for fuel cells J Power Sour 124 2003 81 89
139. Curtin DE. High volume low cost manucfacturing process for Nafion membranes, abstracts for fuel cell seminar 2002. Palm Springs FL; Nov 18-21 2002. p. 834.
140. G.K. Kostov, V. Kotov, G.D. Ivanov, and D. Todorova Synthesis and properties of fluorofunctional copolymers for membranes applications J Appl Polym Sci 47 1993 735 742
141. DesMarteau DD. New copolymers for fuel cell membranes. US Patent, 5,463,006; 1995 (Gas Research Institute).
142. M.H. Hung, W.B. Farnham, A.E. Feiring, and S. Rozen Functional fluoromonomers and fluoropolymers G. Hougham P.E. Cassidy K. Johns T. Davidson Fluoropolymers: synthesis vol. 1 1999 Plenum Press New York 51 66
143. S.V. Kotov, S.D. Pedersen, W. Qiu, Z.M. Qiu, and D.J. Burton Preparation of perfluorocarbon polymers containing phosphonic acid groups J Org Chem 82 1997 13 19
144. Kato M, Akiyama K, Yamabe M. New perfluorocarbon polymers with phosphonic groups. Reports Res Lab Asahi Glass Co; 1983;33:135-148.
145. D.J. Burton, and L.G. Sprague Allylations of [(diethoxyphosphinyl) difluoromethyl]zinc bromide as a convenient route to 1,1-difluoro-3- alkenephosphonates J Org Chem 54 1989 613 619
146. Feiring AE, Doyle CM, Roelofs MG, Farnham WB, Bekiarian PG, Blau HAK. Substantially fluorinated ionomers, World Demand WO 99/45048; 1999 (DuPont de Nemours and Company).
147. P.G. Bekiarian, C.M. Doyle, W.B. Farnham, A.E. Feiring, P. Morken, and M.G. Roelofs New substantially fluorinated ionomers for electrochemical applications J Fluorine Chem 125 2004 187 204
148. Feiring AE, Doyle CM, Roelofs MG, Farnham WB, Bekiarian PG, Polyvinylidene fluoride ionomers containing pendant fluoroalkylsulfonyl imide or fluoroalkylsulfonyl methide groups. US Patent, 6,667,377; 2003 (E. I. duPont de Nemours and Company).
149. Ameduri B, Armand M, Boucher M, Manseri A, Fluorosulfonted elastomers based on vinylidene fluoride endowed with low glass transition temperatures containing neither tetrafluoroethylene nor siloxane groups. World Demand WO 01/49,757; 2001 (Hydro-Québec).
150. g à base d'hexafluoropropène et ne contenant ni du tétrafluoroé thylène, ni de groupement siloxane. World Demand WO 01/49,760 A1; 2001 (Hydro-Québec).
151. g et procédés pour leurs préparations. World Demand WO 01/96,268 A2; 2001 (Hydro-Québec).
152. g et procédés pour leurs préparations. World Demand WO 02/50,142 A1; 2002 (Hydro-Québec).
153. M. Yamabe A challenge to novel fluoropolymers Makromol Chem Macromol Symp 64 1992 11 18
154. H. Miyake, Y. Sugaya, and M. Yamabe Synthesis and properties of perfluorocarboxylated polymers J Fluorine Chem 92 1998 137 143
155. B. Ameduri, and G. Bauduin Synthesis and polymerization of fluorinated monomers bearing a reactive lateral group. XIV. Radical copolymerization of vinylidene fluoride with methyl 1,1-dihydro-4,7-dioxaperfluoro-5,8-dimethyl non-1-enoate J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 41 2003 3109 3120
156. R. Souzy, B. Ameduri, and B. Boutevin Synthesis and (co)polymerization of monofluoro-, difluoro-, trifluoro-styrene and [(trifluorovinyl)oxy] benzene Prog Polym Sci 29 2004 75 106
157. S.G. Cohen, H.T. Wolosinski, and P.J. Scheuer α,β,β- Trifluorostyrene and α-chloro-β,β- difluorostyrene J Am Chem Soc 71 1949 3439 3440
158. M. Prober The synthesis and polymerization of some fluorinated styrenes J Am Chem Soc 75 1953 968 973
159. S. Dixon Elimination reaction of fluoro-olefins with organolithium compounds J Org Chem 21 1956 400 403
160. Kazennikova GV, Talamaeva TV, Zimin AV, Simonov AP, Kocheshkov KA. Fluorinated styrenes. V. α,β,β-Trifluorostyrenes. Nank, Izv Akad Nauk SSSR Otd Khin: 1961. p.1063-1065.
161. L.F. Rybakova, E.M. Panov, A.A. Nikitina, K.A. Kocheshkov, and I.V. Karandi Synthesis and properties of trimethylsilyl esters of fluoro-containing vinylbenzenesulfonic acids Zh Obsh Khim 46 1 1976 117 121
162. R.S. Sorokina, L.F. Rybakova, I.O. Kalinovskii, V.A. Chernoplekova, and I.P. Beletskaya Synthesis of trifluorostyrene and its derivatives by the reaction of (trifluorovinyl)trimethyltin aryl iodides in the presence of palladium complexes Zh Org Khim 18 11 1982 2458 2459
163. P.L. Heinze, and D.J. Burton Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of perfluoroalkenylzinc reagents with aryl iodides. A new, simple synthesis of α,β,β-trifluorostyrenes and the stereoselective preparation of 1-arylperfluoropropenes J Org Chem 53 12 1988 2714 2720
164. Stone C, Steck AE, Lousenberg RD. Substituted trifluorostyrene compositions. US 5602185; 1997 (Ballard Power Systems, Inc.).
165. P. Sanecki Variation of transfer coefficient in electrochemical correlations of ρσ type. Reduction of aromatic sulfonyl fluorides on mercury electrode Polish J Chem 66 1 1992 101 110
166. R.B. Hodgdon, and D.I. MacDonald Preparation and polymerizability of substituted α,β,β,-trifluorostyrenes J Polym Sci Part A-1, Polym Chem Ed 6 3 1968 711 717
167. P.D. Barlett, and G.M. Cohen Dimers of α,β,β- trifluorostyrene J Am Chem Soc 95 23 1973 7923 7925
168. F. Tellier, R. Sauvetre, and J.F. Normant Reactivity of fluorodienes and fluorostyrenes obtained by a palladium catalyzed cross-coupling reaction J Organomet Chem 331 3 1987 281 298
169. Tevlina AS, Ivankin AN, Korshak VV, Baranova NP, Nikitina TS, Rokhlin EM. Copolymerization of α,β,β-trifluorostyrene with some vinyl monomers. Mosk. Khim. Tekhnol. Inst., Moscow, USSR, deposited Doc., Viniti Chem Abst 127-81; 1981. p. 12.
170. C. Stone, T.S. Daynard, L.Q. Hu, C. Mah, and A.E. Steck Phosphonic acid functionalized proton exchange membranes for PEM fuel cells J New Mater Electrochem Syst 3 1 2000 43 50
171. X. Xu, and I. Cabasso Preliminary study of phosphonate ion exchange membranes for PEM fuel cells Polym Mater Sci Eng (Am Chem Soc, Div PMSE) 68 1993 120 121
172. Pineri M, Marsacq D, Ameduri B, Souzy R. Fluorinated membranes for fuel cell. FR 2843398; 2004 (Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique).
173. Watanabe M, Ishiuchi H. Alkaline batteries containing fluorine compounds for corrosion resistance. JP 5013070; 1993 (Asahi Chemical).
174. Z.Y. Yang, A.E. Feiring, and B.E. Smart New ring-containing fluoropolymers J Am Chem Soc 116 9 1994 4135 4136
175. D.W. Smith Jr, and D.A. Babb Perfluorocyclobutane aromatic polyethers. Synthesis and characterization of new siloxane-containing fluoropolymers Macromolecules 29 3 1996 852 860
176. K.P.U. Pereta, M. Krawiek, and D.W. Smith Jr Synthesis and thermal cyclopolymerization of heterocycle containing bis-ortho-diynyl arenes Tetrahedron 58 2002 10197 10203
177. J. Luo, S. Liu, M. Haller, L. Liu, H. Ma, and A.K.Y. Jen Design, synthesis, and properties of highly efficient side-chain dendronized nonlinear optical polymers for electro-optics Adv Mater 14 23 2002 1763 1768
178. C.M. Topping, J. Jin, S.C. Ligon Jr, A.V. Patil, S. Fallis, and J.A. Irvin Toward crown ether containing semifluorinated polyarylene amides for lithium battery membranes Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 43 1 2002 486 487
179. S.C. Ligon Jr, M. Krawieck, A. Kitaygorodskiy, and D.W. Smith Jr First separation and characterization of cis and trans 1,2-bisaryloxy perfluorocyclobutanes J Fluorine Chem 123 2003 139 146
180. F.L. Qing, R. Wang, B. Li, X. Zheng, and W.D. Meng Synthesis of 4,6-disubstituted pyrimidines via Suzuki and Kumada coupling reaction of 4,6-dichloropyrimidine J Fluorine Chem 120 1 2003 21 24
181. Clement KS, Ezzel BR, Babb DA, Richey WF. Reactive compounds containing perfluorocyclobutane rings. US 5037919; 1991 (Dow Chemical).
182. Clement KS, Ezzel BR, Babb DA, Richey WF. Reactive compounds containing perfluorocyclobutane rings. US 5037919; 1991 (Dow Chemical).
183. Clement KS, Ezzel BR, Babb DA. Reactive compounds containing perfluorocyclobutane rings. US 5021602; 1991 (Dow Chemical)
184. Bartmann E, Plach H, Eidenschink R, Reiffenrath V, Pauluth D, Poetsch E et al. Vinyl compounds, and a liquid-crystalline medium. US 5403512; 1995 (Merck).
185. Desmarteau DD, Martin CW, Ford LA, Xie Y. Sulfonated perfluorovinyl functional monomers, US 6268532; 2001 (3M Innovative Properties company).
186. D.W. Smith Jr, S. Kumar, J. Ballato, H. Shah, and C. Topping Perfluorocyclobutyl copolymers for microphonics Adv Mater 14 21 2002 1585 1589
187. S.H. Foulger, P. Jiang, A. Lattam, D.W. Smith Jr, and J. Ballato Optical and mechanical properties of poly(ethyleneglycol) methacrylate hydrogel encapsuled crystalline colloid arrays Langmuir 17 2001 6023 6026
188. S.H. Foulger, A. Lattam, J. Ballato, P. Jiang, Y. Ying, and D.W. Smith Jr Photonic bandgap composites Adv Mater 13 24 2001 1898 1901
189. H. Zengin, W. Zhou, J. Jin, R. Czerw, D.W. Smith Jr, and L. Echegoyen Carbon nanotube doped polyaniline Adv Mater 14 20 2002 1480 1483
190. D.W. Smith Jr, H.W. Boone, R. Traiphol, H. Shah, and D. Perahia Perfluorocyclobutyl (PFCB) liquid crystalline fluoropolymers. Synthesis and thermal cyclopolymerization of di(trifluorovinyloxy)-α-methylstylbene Macromolecules 33 4 2000 1126 1128
191. R. Traiphol, H.V. Shah, D.W. Smith Jr, and D. Perahia Bulk and interfacial studies of a new versatile semifluorinated lytropic liquid crystalline polymer Macromolecules 34 12 2001 3954 3961
192. R. Traiphol, D.W. Smith Jr, and D. Perahia Surface ordering in thin films of liquid crystalline polymers containing fluorinated and protonated segments: neutron reflectometry study J Polym Sci Part A Polym Chem 40 24 2002 2817 2824
193. P.H. Townsend, E.O. Shaffer, M.E. Mills, J. Blackson, and M.J. Radler Interconnect process technology using perfluorocyclobutane (PFCB) Mater Res Soc Symp Proc 443 1997 33 40 [Low-Dielectrical Constant Materials II]
194. G. Fishbeck, R. Moosburger, C. Kostrzewa, A. Achen, and K. Petermann Single-mode optical waveguides using a high temperature stable polymer with low losses in the 1.55 μm range Electron Lett 33 6 1997 518 519
195. Perretie D, Bratton L, Bremmer J, Babb DA, Chen Q, Judy JH. Perflurocyclobutane containing aromatic ether polymers as an electronic grade resin for flat panel displays. In: Proceedings of SPIE - the international society for optical engineering, 1911 (Liquid Crystal Materials, Devices, and Applications II); 1993:15-20.
196. T.A. Tumolillo Jr, A. Thomas, and P.R. Ashley Multilevel registered polymeric Mach-Zehnder intensity modulator array Appl Phys Lett 62 24 1993 3068 3070
197. D.W. Smith Jr, D. Babb, H. Shah, A. Hoeglund, R. Traiphol, and D. Perahia Perfluorocyclobutane (PFCB) polyaryl ethers. A versatile coating material J Fluorine Chem 104 1 2000 109 117
198. Grot WG, Molnar CJ, Resnick PR. Perhalocarboxylic acids by oxidation of perhalosulfinic acids. AU 544027; 1985 (DuPont de Nemours).
199. C.W. Martin, P.J. Nandapurkar, and S.S. Katti Polymeric materials encyclopedia 1992 CRC Press Inc Boca Raton, FL
200. Beckerbauer R. Fluorocarbon ethers. US 3397191; 1968 (DuPont de Nemours).
201. Babb DA, Clement KS, Ezzel BR. Perfluorovinyl compounds, US 5023380; 1991 (Dow Chemical).
202. Dow Chemical (b) Babb DA, Clement KS, Richey WF, Ezzel BR. Perfluorocyclobutane ring-containing polymers. US 5037917; 1991 (Dow Chemical).
203. D.A. Babb, R.B. Ezzel, K.S. Clement, W.F. Richey, and A.P. Kennedy Perfluorocyclobutane aromatic ether polymers J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 31 13 1993 3465 3477
204. A.P. Kennedy, D.A. Babb, J.N. Bremmer, and A.J. Pasztor Jr Perfluorocyclobutane aromatic ether polymers. II. Thermal/oxidative stability and decomposition of a thermoset polymer J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 33 11 1995 1859 1865
205. D.A. Babb, N.G. Rondan, and D.W. Smith Jr Novel step-growth polymers from the thermal [2π+2π] cyclodimerization of fluorinated olefins Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 36 1 1995 721 722
206. Babb DA, Clement KS, Ezzel BR. Polymers containing Perfluorocyclobutane ring. US 5159038; 1992 (Dow Chemical).
207. J. Ji, S. Narayan-Sarathy, R.H. Neilson, J.D. Oxley, D.A. Babb, and N.G. Rondan [p-((Trifluorovinyl)oxy)phenyl]lithium: formation, synthetic utility, and theoretical support for a versatile new reagent in fluoropolymer chemistry Organometallics 17 5 1998 783 785
208. R. Souzy, B. Ameduri, B. Boutevin, and D. Virieux Synthesis of new aromatic perfluorovinyl ether monomers containing phosphonic acid functionality J Fluorine Chem 125 2004 1317 1324
209. D.A. Babb, R.V. Snelgrove, D.W. Smith Jr, and S.F. Mudrich Novel step-growth polymers from the thermal [2π+2π] cyclopolymerization of aryl trifluorovinyl ether monomers ACS Symp Ser 624 1996 431 441 [Step-Growth Polymers for High-Performance Materials]
210. H.W. Boone, D.W. Smith Jr, and D.A. Babb A new aromatic perfluorocyclobutane polymer: synthesis and thermal characterization of 1,3,5-tris[(4-trifluorovinyloxy)phenyl]benzene Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 39 2 1998 812 813
211. Y. Xu, D.C. Loveday, J.P. Ferraris, and D.W. Smith Jr A new phenylthiophene derivative with crosslinking capability Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 39 1 1998 143 144
212. S. Narayan-Sarathy, R.H. Neilson, and D.W. Smith Jr Hydrosilation polymerization and thermal cure of divinyl trifluorovinyl ether monomers Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 39 1 1998 609 610
213. L.A. Ford, D.W. Smith Jr, and D.D. Desmarteau New aromatic perfluorovinyl ether monomers containing the sulfonimide acid functionality Polym Mater Sci Eng (Am Chem Soc, Div PMSE) 83 2000 10 11
214. Neilson RH, Robert H, Ji J, Narayan-Sarathy S, Oxley J, Smith Jr DW. Synthesis and characterization of new trifluorovinyl ether derivatives of phosphorus and silicon. Book of Abstracts, 213th ACS National Meeting, San Francisco; April 13-17 1997.
215. D.A. Babb, H.W. Boone, D.W. Smith Jr, and P.W. Rudolph Perfluorocyclobutane aromatic ether polymers. III. Synthesis and thermal stability of a thermoset polymer containing triphenylphosphine oxide J Appl Polym Sci 69 10 1998 2005 2012
216. H.W. Boone, D.W. Smith Jr, and D.A. Babb A new aromatic perfluorocyclobutane polymer: synthesis and thermal characterization of 1,3,5-tris[(4-trifluorovinyloxy)phenyl]benzene Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 39 2 1998 812 813
217. J. Rizzo, and F.W. Harris Perfluorocyclobutane-containing silarylene-siloxane polymers with pendant trifluoropropyl groups Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 40 2 1999 874 875
218. J. Rizzo, and F.W. Harris Synthesis and thermal properties of fluorosilicones containing perfluorocyclobutane rings Polymer 41 13 2000 5125 5136
219. D.D. Desmarteau Novel perfluorinated ionomers and ionenes J Fluorine Chem 72 2 1995 203 208
220. D.D. Desmarteau, J.J. Ma, M.H. Tu, J.T. Liu, B. Thomas, and J. McClellan Synthesis and properties of new bis[(perfluoroalkyl)sulfonyl]imide ionomers for fuel cells Polym Mater Sci Eng (Am Chem Soc, Div PMSE) 80 1999 598 599
221. S.E. Creager, S. Savett, B. Thomas, and D.D. Desmarteau New bis[(perfluroralkyl)sulfonyl]imide ionomers for PEM fuel cells Polym Mater Sci Eng (Am Chem Soc Div PMSE) 80 1999 600 601
222. S.E. Creager, J.J. Summer, R.D. Baily, J.J. Ma, W.T. Pennington, and D.D. Desmarteau Equivalent weight and crystallinity effects on water content and proton conductivity in bis[(perfluoroalkyl)sulfonyl]imide-based ionomers Electrochem Solid State Lett 2 9 1999 434 436
223. R. Souzy, B. Ameduri, and B. Boutevin Synthesis of functional polymers - vinylidene fluoride based fluorinated copolymers and terpolymers bearing bromo-aromatic side-group J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42 2004 5077 5097
224. Souzy R, Ameduri B, Boutevin B, Capron P, Marsacq D, Gebel G. Proton-conducting polymer electrolyte membranes based on fluoropolymers incorporating perfluorovinyl ether sulfonic acids - synthesis and characterizations, fuel cell - from fundamentals to systems; in press.
225. A. Chapiro Radiation chemistry of polymeric systems 1962 Wiley New York
226. D.O. Geymer M. Dole The radiation chemistry of macromolecules vol. 1(1) 1972 Academic Press New York
227. L. Mandelkern M. Dole The radiation chemistry of macromolecules vol. 1(13) 1972 Academic Press New York
228. R.E. Florin Radiation chemistry of fluorocarbon polymers L.A. Wall Fluoropolymers vol. 11 1972 Wiley-Interscience New York 317 331
229. J. Okamoto Radiation synthesis of functional polymers vol. 29 1987 p. 469-475
230. V.S. Ivanov Radiation chemistry of polymers, new concepts in polymer science 1992 Wiley New York
231. A. Singh, and J. Silverman Radiation processing of polymers 1992 Hansen Munich
232. Lyons BJ. The crosslinking of fluoropolymers with ionising radiation: a review. In: Second international conference on radiation processing for plastics and rubbers, Chantembury, UK; March 1984. p. 1-8.
233. B.J. Lyons The radiation crosslinking of fluoropolymers J. Scheirs Modern fluoropolymers 1997 Wiley New York 335 347 Chapter 18
234. Y. Uyama, K. Kato, and Y. Ikada Surface modification of polymers by grafting Adv Polym Sci 137 1998 1 39
235. B. Gupta, and G.G. Scherer Proton-exchange membranes by radiation-induced graft copolymerization of monomers into Teflon-FEP films Chimia 48 1994 127 137
236. J.S. Forsythe, and D.J.T. Hill Radiation chemistry of fluoropolymers Prog Polym Sci 25 2000 101 136
237. T.R. Dargaville, G.A. Georges, D.J.T. Hill, and A.K. Whittaker High energy radiation grafting of fluorpolymers Prog Polym Sci 28 2003 1355 1376
238. N.E. Drysdale, L. Wang, and Y.Z. Yang Free-radical grafting of polymers with fluorocarbon compouds and products therefrom Int Demand WO 31 1998 716 [DuPont de Nemours and Co.]
239. L. Wang, Y.Z. Yang, L.l. Wang, N.E. Drysdale, and M. Doyle A simple transformation of polyethylenes to environementally benign acid catalysts and lithium conductive polymeric electrolytes Macromolecules 22 2003 8205 8207
240. J.J. Robin Overview on the use of ozone in the synthesis of new polymers and the modification of polymers Adv Polym Sci 167 2004 35 74
241. Y. Liu, J.Y. Lee, E.T. Kang, P. Wang, and K.L. Tan Synthesis, characterization and electrochemical transport properties of the poly(ethyleneglycol)-grafted-poly(vinylidene fluoride) nanoporous membranes React Funct Polym 47 2001 201 213
242. J.M. Tarascon, A. Gozdz, C. Schmutz, F. Shokoohi, and P.C. Warren Performance Bellcore's plastic rechargeable Li-ion batteries Solid State Ionics 86 1996 49 54
243. 2 on the thermal and transport properties of solvent-free, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based polymer electrolyte Solid State Ionics 118 1999 73 81
244. G.Z. Liang, T.L. Lu, X.Y. Ma, H.X. Yan, and Z.H. Gong Synthesis and characteritics of radiation-grafted membranes for fuel cell electrolytes Polym Int 52 2003 1300 1308
245. M.M. Nasef Thermal stability of radiation grafted PTFE-g-polystyrene sulfonic acid membranes Polym Degrad Stab 68 2000 231 238
246. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, H.M. Nor, and O.M. Foo Radiation-induced grafting of styrene onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene) films. Part. II. Properties of the grafted and sulfonated membranes Polym Int 49 2000 1572 1579
247. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, H.M. Nor, and M.A. Yarmo XPS studies of radiation grafted PTFE-g-polystyrene sulfonic acid membranes J Appl Polym Sci 76 2000 336 349
248. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, A.M. Dessouki, and E.M. El-Nesr Radiation-induced grafting of styrene onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) films. I. Effect of grafting conditions and properties of the grafted films Polym Int 49 2000 399 406
249. A.G. Guzman-Garcia, P.N. Pintauro, M.W. Verbrugge, and E.W. Schneider Analysis of radiation grafted membranes for fuel cell electrolytes J Appl Electrochem 22 1992 204 214
250. S. Turmanova, A. Dimitrova, G. Kostov, and E. Nedkov Study of the structure of polyethylene and poly(tetrafluoroethylene) radiation grafted ion-exchange copolymers Macromol Chem Phys 197 1996 2973 2981
251. G.K. Kostov, and S.C. Turmanova Radiation-initiated graft copolymerization of 4-vinylpyridine onto polyethylene and polytetrafluoroethylene films and anion-exchange membranes therefrom J Appl Polym Sci 64 1997 1469 1475
252. Machi S, Sugo T, Sugishitu A. Ion-exchange membrane. Japanese Patent 7,808,692; 1978 (Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute).
253. B. Gupta, F.N. Buchi, G.G. Scherer, and A. Chapiro Property-structure correlations Polym Adv Technol 5 1994 193 198
254. S. Holmberg, T. Lehtinen, J. Näsman, D. Ostrovoskii, M. Paronen, and R. Serimaa Structure and properties of sulfonated poly[(vinylidene fluoride)-g-stryrene] porous membranes J Mater Chem 6 1996 1309 1316
255. S. Hietala, S. Holmberg, M. Karjalainen, J. Näsman, M. Paronen, and R. Serimaa Structural investigation of radiation grafted and sulfonated poly(vinylidene fluoride), PVDF, membranes J Mater Chem 7 1997 721 726
256. J. Ennari, S. Hietala, M. Paronen, F. Sundholm, N. Walsby, and M. Karjalainen New polymer electrolyte membranes for low temperature fuel cells Macromol Symp 146 1999 41 45
257. S.D. Flint, and R.C.T. Slade Investigation of the radiation-grafted PVDF-g-polystyrene sulfonic acid ion exchange membranes for use in hydrogen oxygen fuel cells Solid State Ionics 97 1997 299 307
258. T.N. Danks, R.C.T. Slade, and J.R. Varcoe Comparison of PVDF- and FEP-based radiation-grafted alkaline anion-exchange membranes for use in low temperature portable DMFCs J Mater Chem 12 2002 3371 3373
259. T.N. Danks, R.C.T. Slade, and J.R. Varcoe Alkaline anion-exchange radiation-grafted membranes for possible electrochemical application in fuel cells J Mater Chem 13 2003 712 721
260. J.A. Horsfall, and K.V. Lovell Fuel cell performance of radiation-grafted sulfonic acid membranes Fuel Cells 1 2001 186 195
261. J.A. Horsfall, and K.V. Lovell Comparison of fuel cell performance of selected fluoropolymer and hydrocarbon based grafted copolymers incorporating acrylic acid and styrene sulfonic acid Polym Adv Technol 13 2002 381 390
262. J.A. Horsfall, and K.V. Lovell Synthesis and characterization of acrylic acid-grafted hydrocarbon and fluorocarbon polymers with simultaneous or mutual grafting technique J Appl Polym Sci 87 2003 230 243
263. M. Patri, V.R. Hande, S. Phadnis, B. Somaiah, S. Roychoudhury, and P.C. Deb Polym Adv Technol 15 2004 270 279
264. M.V. Rouilly, E.R. Krotz, O. Haas, G.G. Scherer, and A. Chapiro Proton exchange membranes prepared by simultaneous radiation grafting of styrene onto Teflon-FEP films. Synthesis and characterization J Membr Sci 81 1993 89 96
265. B. Gupta, F.N. Buchi, and G.G. Scherer Cation exchange membranes by pre-irradiation grafing of styrene into FEP films. I. Influence of synthesis conditions J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 32 1994 1931 1938
266. B. Gupta, G.G. Scherer, and J.G. Highfield Proton-exchange membranes by radiation grafting of styrene onto FEP films. II. Mechanism of thermal degradation in copolymer membranes J Appl Polym Sci 51 1994 1659 1666
267. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, H.M. Nor, and O.M. Foo Proton exchange membranes prepared by simultaneous radiation grafting of styrene onto poly(tetrafluorethylene-co-hexafluoropropylene) films. II. Properties of sulfonated membranes J Appl Polym Sci 78 2000 2443 2453
268. M. Nasef, H. Saidi, and H.M. Nor Proton exchange membranes prepared by simultaneous radiation grafting of styrene onto (tetrafluoroethylene-co- hexafluoropropylene) J Appl Polym Sci 76 2000 220 227
269. Stone C, Steck AE, Choudhury B. Graft fluoropolymer membranes and ion-exchange membranes formed therefrom. US Patent 0,137,806; 2002 (Ballard Power System).
270. H. Herman, R.C.T. Slade, and J.R. Varcoe The radiation-grafting of vinylbenzyl chloride onto poly(hexafluoropropylene-co-tetrafluoroethylene) films with subsequent conversion to alkaline anion-exchange membranes: optimization of the experimental conditions and characterization J Membr Sci 218 2003 147 163
271. K. Scott, W.M. Taama, and P. Argyropoulos Performance of the direct methanol fuel cell with radiation-grafted polymer membranes J Membr Sci 171 2000 119 130
272. A.S. Arico, V. Baglio, P. Creti, A. Di Blasi, V. Antonucci, and J. Brunea Investigation of grafted ETFE-based polymer membranes as alternative electrolyte for direct methanol fuel cells J Power Sour 123 2003 107 115
273. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, M.H. Nor, K.Z.M. Dahlan, and K. Hashim Cation exchange membranes by radiation-induced graft copolymerization of styrene onto PFA copolymer films. I. Preparation and characterization of the graft copolymer J Appl Polym Sci 73 1999 2095 2102
274. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, H.M. Nor, and O.M. Foo Cation exchange membranes by radiation-induced graft copolymerization of styrene onto PFA copolymer films. II. Characterization of sulfonated graft copolymer membranes J Appl Polym Sci 76 2000 1 11
275. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, and H.M. Nor Cation exchange membranes by radiation-induced graft copolymerization of styrene onto PFA copolymer films. III. Thermal stability of the membranes J Appl Polym Sci 77 2000 1877 1885
276. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, and M.A. Yarmo Cation exchange membranes by radiation-induced graft copolymerization of styrene onto PFA copolymer films. IV. Morphological investigations using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy J Appl Polym Sci 77 2000 2455 2463
277. M.M. Nasef, and H. Saidi Post-mortem analysis of radiation grafted fuel cell membrane using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy J New Mater Electrochem Syst 5 2002 183 189
278. S. Hietala, M. Koel, E. Skou, M. Elomaa, and F. Sundholm Thermal stability of styrene grafted and sulfonated proton conducting membranes based on poly(vinylidene fluoride) J Mater Chem 8 1998 1127 1132
279. Hietala S, Paronen M, Holmberg S, Näsman J, Juhanoja J, Karjalainen M, et al. Phase separation and crystallinity in proton conducting membranes of styrene grafted and sulfonated poly (rinylidene fluoride). J Polym Sci Part A Polym chem 1999;37(12):1741-53.
280. S. Hietala, S.L. Maunu, F. Sundholm, T. Lehtinen, and G. Sundholm Water sorption and diffusion coefficients of protons and water in PVDF-g-PSSA polymer electrolyte membranes J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 37 1999 2893 2900
281. K. Jokela, R. Serimaa, M. Torkkeli, F. Sundholm, T. Kallio, and G. Sundholm Effect of the initial matrix material on the structure of radiation-grafted ion-exchange membranes: wide-angle and small-angle X-ray scattering studies J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 40 2002 1539 1555
282. S. Holmberg, J. Nasman, and F. Sundholm Synthesis and properties of sulfonated and crosslinked poly[(vinylidene fluoride)-graft-styrene] membranes Polym Adv Technol 9 1998 121 130
283. M. Elomaa, S. Hietala, M. Paronen, N. Walsby, K. Jokela, and R. Serimaa The state of water and the nature of ion clusters in crosslinked proton conducting membranes of styrene grafted and sulfonated poly(vinylidene fluoride) J Mater Chem 10 2000 2678 2684
284. T. Kallio, K. Jokela, H. Ericson, R. Serimaa, G. Sundholm, and P. Jacobsson Effects of a fuel cell test on the structure of irradiation grafted ion exchange membranes based on different fluoropolymers J Appl Electrochem 33 2003 505 514
285. P. Gode, J. Ihonen, A. Ericson, G. Lindbergh, M. Paronen, and G. Sundholm Membrane durability in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell studied using PVDF based radiation grafted membranes Fuel Cells 3 2003 21 27
286. M. Paronen, F. Sundholm, D. Ostrovskii, P. Jacobsson, G. Jeschker, and E. Raeihala Preparation of proton conducting membranes by direct sulfonation. 1. Effect of radical and radical decay on the sulfonation of polyvinylidene fluoride film Chem Mater 15 2003 4447 4455
287. S. Holmberg, P. Holmlund, C.E. Wilen, T. Kallio, G. Sundholm, and F. Sundholm Synthesis of proton-conducting membranes by the utilization of preirradiation grafting and atom transfer radical polymerization techniques J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Phys 40 2002 591 600
288. K.M. Matyjaszewski, and J. Xia Atom transfer radical polymerization Chem Rev 101 2002 2921 2990
289. H.P. Brack, and G.G. Scherer Modification and characterization of thin polymer films for electrochemical applications Macromol Symp 126 1998 25 49
290. H.P. Brack, and G.G. Scherer Grafting of preirradiated poly(ethylene-alt-tetrafluoroethylene) films with styrene: influence of base polymer film properties and processing parameters J Mater Chem 10 2000 1795 1803
291. C.R. Jarvis, W.J. Macklin, A.J. Macklin, N.J. Mattingley, and E. Kronfli Use of grafted PVDF-based polymers in lithium batteries J Power Sour 97-98 2001 664 666
292. (b) Coowar F, Kronfli E. Microporous membranes for solid electrolytes for lithium cells manufactured by casting vinylidene fluoride polymer solutions containing nonsolvents for polymers and slowly evaporating the liq. phase Internat. Demand WO 2001048063; 2001.
293. B.V. Mislavsky, and V.P. Melnikov Synthesis, properties, and applications of composite materials based on grafted copolymers of perfluoropolymers and perfluorinated monomers with functional groups Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Polym Div) 34 1993 377 378
294. B.V. Mislavsky Fluorinated polymers with functional groups. Synthesis and applications J. Scheirs Modern fluoropolymers vol. 7 1997 Wiley New York 91 110
295. K. Hintzer, and G. Lohr Modified polytetrafluoroethylene - the second generation J. Scheirs Modern fluoropolymers vol. 12 1997 Wiley New York 239 256
296. A. Bozzi, and A. Chapiro The nature of the initiating centers for grafting in air-irradiated perfluoro polymers Eur Polym J 23 1987 255 257
297. A. Bozzi, and A. Chapiro Synthesis of permselective membranes by grafting acrylic acid into air-irradiated Teflon FEP films Radiat Phys Chem 32 1988 193 196
298. S. Turmanova, A. Trifonov, O. Kalaijiev, and G. Kostov Radiation grafting of acrylic acid onto polytetrafluoroethylene films for glucose oxidase immobilization and its application in membrane biosensor J Membr Sci 127 1997 1 7
299. El.S. Hegazy, I. Ishigaki, and J. Okamoto Radiation grafting of acrylic acid onto fluorine-containing polymers. I. Kinetic study of preirradiation grafting onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene) J Appl Polym Sci 26 1981 3117 3124
300. H. Omichi, and J. Okamoto Synthesis of ion-exchange membranes by radiation-induced multiple grafting of methyl α,β,β- trifluoroacrylate J Polym Sci: Polym Chem Ed 20 1982 521 528
301. H. Omichi, and J. Okamoto Synthesis of ion-exchange by cografting methyl α,β,β-trifluoroacrylate and propylene J Polym Sci: Polym Chem Ed 22 1984 1775 1782
302. H. Omichi, and J. Okamoto Effect of mixed monomers on the synthesis of ion-exchange membranes by radiation-induced grafting J Appl Polym Sci 30 1985 1277 1284
303. G. Bex, A. Chapiro, M.B. Huglin, A.M. Jendrychowska-Bonamour, and T. O'Neill Preparation of semipermeable membranes with remarkable properties by the radiochemical grafting of poly(tetrafluoroethylene) films J Polym Sci, Polym Symp 22 1968 493 499
304. A. Chapiro, E. Gordon, and A.M. Jendrychowska-Bonamour Solvent effects on radiochemical grafting of 4-vinylpyridine onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene)films Eur Polym J 9 1973 975 984
305. G. Burillo, and A. Chapiro Radiochemical grafting of N-vinylpyrrolidone into poly(tetrafluoroethylene) films Eur Polym J 22 1986 653 656
306. D.L. Kerbow Ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer resins J. Scheirs Modern fluoropolymers vol. 15 1997 Wiley New York 301 310
307. G.K. Kostov, and A.N. Atanassov Synthesis of hydrophilic ion-exchange fluoroplymers containing sulpho- and both sulpho- and carboxyl groups Eur Polym J 27 1991 1331 1333
308. G.K. Kostov, and A.N. Atanassov Radiation initiated grafting of acrylic acid onto tetrafluoroethylene-ethylene copolymers J Appl Polym Sci 47 1993 361 366
309. G.K. Kostov, and A.N. Atanassov Properties of cation-exchange membranes prepared by radiation grafting of acrylic acid onto tetrafluoroethylene-ethylene copolymers J Appl Polym Sci 47 1993 1269 1276
310. I. Kaur, B.N. Misra, R. Kumar, and B. Singh Radiation induced graft copolymerization of methyl acrylate and ethyl acrylate onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-ethylene) film Polym Polym Compos 10 2002 391 404
311. G. Ellinghorst, J. Fuehrer, and D. Vierkotten Radiation initiated grafting on fluoro polymers for membrane preparation Radiat Phys Chem 18 1981 889 897
312. G. Ellinghorst, A. Niemoeller, and D. Vierkotten Radiation-initiated grafting of polymer films - an alternative technique to prepare membranes for various separation problems Radiat Phys Chem 22 1983 635 642
313. W. Becker, and G. Schmidt-Naake Proton exchange membranes by irradiation-induced grafting of styrene onto FEP and ETFE: influences of the crosslinker N,N-methylene-bis-acrylamide Chem Eng Technol 25 2002 373 377
314. J.A. Horsfall, and K.V. Lovell Proton exchange membranes by irradiation-induced grafting of styrene onto FEP and ETFE: influences of the crosslinker N,N-methylene-bis-acrylamide Eur Polym J 38 2002 1671 1682
315. C. Chuy, V.I. Basura, E. Simon, S. Holdcroft, J.A. Horsfall, and K.V. Lovell Electrochemical characterization of ethylenetetrafluoroethylene-g- polystyrenesulfonic acid solid polymer electrolytes J Electrochem Soc 147 2000 4453 4461
316. H.P. Brack, L. Bonorand, H.G. Buhrer, and G.G. Scherer Radiation grafting of ETFE and FEP films: base polymer film effects Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 39 1998 976 977
317. Brack HP, Bonorand L, Buhrer HG, Scherer GG. Radiation grafting of ETFE and FEP films: base polymer film effect, Book of Abstracts, 216th ACS National Meeting Boston; 23-27.08.1998, Poly-517.
318. H.P. Brack, L. Bonorand, H.G. Buhrer, and G.G. Scherer Radiation processing of fluoropolymer films Polym Prepr (Am Chem Soc, Div Polym Chem) 39 1998 897 898
319. H.P. Brack, M. Wyler, G. Peter, and G.G. Scherer A contact angle investigation of the surface properties of selected proton-conducting radiation-grafted membranes J Membr Sci 214 2003 1 19
320. M. Pozzoli, G. Vita, and V. Arcella Melt processable perfluoropolymers J. Scheirs Modern fluoropolymers 1997 Wiley New York 373 396 chapter 21
321. R.E. Florin, and L.A. Wall Gamma irradiation of fluorocarbon polymers J Res Natl Bureau Stand A 65 1961 375 387
322. E.R. Lovejoy, M.I. Bro, and G.H. Bowers Chemistry of radiation cross-linking of branched fluorocarbon resins J Appl Polym Sci 9 1965 401 410
323. Y. Rosenberg, A. Siegemann, M. Narkis, and S. Shkolnik Low dose gamma-irradiation of some fluoropolymers: effect of polymer chemical structure J Appl Polym Sci 45 1992 783
324. A. Bhattacharya, V. De, and S.N. Bhattacharya Preparation of polypyrrole composite with acrylic acid-grafted tetrafluoroethylene-hexafluoropropylene (Teflon-FEP) copolymer Synth Met 65 1994 35 38
325. E.S. Hegazy, I. Ishigaki, A.M. Dessouki, A. Rabie, and J. Okamoto The study on radiation grafting of acrylic acid onto fluorine-containing polymers. III. Kinetic study of preirradiation grafting onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene- hexafluoropropylene) J Appl Polym Sci 27 1982 535 543
326. A. Hegazy, I. Ishigaki, A. Rabie, A.M. Dessouki, and J. Okamoto The study on radiation grafting of acrylic acid onto fluorine-containing polymers. IV. Properties of membrane obtained by preirradiation grafting onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene-hexafluoropropylene) J Appl Polym Sci 28 1983 1465 1479
327. Y. Gen Preparation of charged micro-mosaic membrane via radiation-induced grafting of styrene and methyl methacrylate onto Teflon FEP films Desalination 62 1987 265 273
328. M.M. Nasef, and H. Saidi Thermal degradation behavior of radiation grafted FEP-g-polystyerne sulfonic acid membranes Polym Degrad Stab 70 2000 497 504
329. M.M. Nasef, H. Saidi, and M.A. Yarmo Surface investigations of radiation grafted FEP-g-polystyrene sulfonic acid membranes using XPS J New Mater Electrochem Syst 3 2000 309 317
330. B. Gupta, F.N. Buchi, M. Staub, D. Grman, and G.G. Scherer Cation exchange membranes by pre-irradiation grafting of styrene into FEP films. II. Properties of copolymer membranes J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 34 1996 1873 1880
331. B. Gupta, G.G. Scherer, and J.G. Highfield Angew Makromol Chem 256 1998 81
332. B. Gupta, F.N. Buchi, G.G. Scherer, and A. Chapiro Materials research aspects of organic solid proton conductors Solid State Ionics 61 1993 213 218
333. F.N. Buchi, B. Gupta, O. Haas, and G.G. Scherer Materials research aspects of organic solid proton conductors Electrochim Acta 40 1995 145 153
334. Gubler L. Kuhn H, Schmidt TJ; Scherer GG, Brack HP, Simbeck K. Performance and durability of membrane electrode assemblies based on radiation-grafted fep-g-polystyrene membranes. Fuel Cell 2004;4:196-207.
335. K. Hintzer, and G. Lohr Melt processable tetrafluoroethylene- perfluoropropylvinyl ether copolymers (PFA) J. Scheirs Modern fluoropolymers 1997 Wiley New York 223 238 chapter 11
336. T.R. Dargaville, G.A. George, D.J.T. Hill, U. Sheler, and A.K. Whittaken Cross-linking of PFA by electron beam, an investigation of the thermal and tensile properties of PFA following γ-radiolysis Macromolecules 36 2003 7132 7137
337. F. Cardona, G.A. George, D.J.T. Hill, F. Rasoul, and J. Maeji Copolymers obtained by the radiation-induced grafting of styrene onto poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoropropylvinyl ether) substrates. 1. Preparation and structural investigation Macromolecules 35 2002 355 364
338. Bahar B, Hobson AR, Kolde JA, Zuckerbrod D. Ultra-thin integral composite membrane. US Patent 5,547,551; 1996 (W.L. Gore).
339. Terada N, Hommura S. Electrolyte membrane for solid polymer type fuel cell and producing method thereof. European Patent 1,139,472; 2001 (Asahi Glass, Co. Ltd).
340. Proceedings of the 'Solid State Protonic Conductors 12' Conference, Uppsala (Sweden); Solid State Ionics; in press.
341. Ishisaki T, Kinoshita S. Membrane electrode assembly for solid polymer electrolyte fuel cells process and its production. European Patent 1263073 A1; 2002 (Asahi Glass Co. Ltd).
342. D.H. Jung, S.Y. Cho, D.H. Peck, D.R. Shin, and J.S. Kim Performance evaluation of a Nafion/silicon oxide hybrid membrane for direct methanol fuel cell J Power Sour 106 2002 173 177
343. Z.G. Shao, P. Joghee, and I.M. Hsing Preparation and characterization of hybrid Nafion silica membrane doped with phosphotungstenic acid for high temperature operation of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell J Membr Sci 119 2004 43
344. F. Bauer, and M. Willert-Poroda Microstuctural characterization of Zr-phosphate-nafion membranes for direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) applications J Membr Sci 233 2004 141 149 [and references therein]
345. Y.S. Kim, F. Wang, M. Hickner, T.A. Zawodzinski, and J.E. McGrath Fabrication and characterization of heteropoly acid (H3PW12O40)/directly polymerized sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) copolymer composite membranes for higher temperature fuel cell applications J Membr Sci 212 2003 263 282
346. J.S. Wainright, J.T. Wang, D. Weng, R.F. Savinell, and M. Litt Acid-doped polybenzimidazoles: a new polymer electrolyte J Electrochem Soc 142 1995 121 123
347. L. Xiao, H. Zhang, E.W. Choe, E. Scanlon, L.S. Ramanathan, and B.C. Benicewicz Synthesis and characterization of pyridine-based polybenzimidazoles as novel fuel cell membrane materials Prepr Symp (Am Chem Soc, Div Fuel Chem) 48 2003 447 448
348. Liu F, Yi B, Xing D, Yu J, Zhang H. Nafion/PTFE composite membranes for fule cell applications. J Membr Sci 2003;212:213-23.
349. G.K. Surya Prakash, M.C. Smart, Q.J. Wang, A. Atti, V. Pleynet, and B. Yang High efficiency direct methanol fuel cell based on poly(styrene sulfonic) acid (PSSA)-poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) composite membranes J Fluorine Chem 125 2004 1217 1230
350. P. Staiti, A.S. Arico, V. Baglio, F. Lufrano, E. Passalacqua, and V. Antonucci Hybrid Nafion-silica membranes doped with heteropolyacids for application in direct methanol fuel cell Solid State Ionics 145 2001 101 107
351. Yang ZY. Fluorosulfonic acid organic polymers. Intern. Demand WO Patent 02/092,646 A1; 2002 (E.I. DuPont de Nemours).
352. Wessel H, Bender M, Harth K, Fischer A, Hoelze M. Manufacture of electrocatalytic electrodes for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells to prevent peroxide generation. European Pat 1,271,682; 2003 (BASF).
353. Park JK, Lee YG, Eom JY. Method of producing polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. US Patent 0,324,235 A1; 2003 (Roberts Abokhair Mardula).