The role of reverse genetics in the development of vaccines against respiratory viruses

Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 369-380

  Marsh, G A ^b   Tannock, G A ^a  

^a RMIT UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Respiratory; Reverse genetics; RNA; Vaccine; Virus

Indexed keywords

COMPLEMENTARY DNA; INACTIVATED VACCINE; INFLUENZA VACCINE; LIVE VACCINE; PARAINFLUENZA VACCINE; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS VACCINE; VACCINE;

AVIAN INFLUENZA; GENETICS; HUMAN; INFLUENZA VIRUS; LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION; NONHUMAN; PATENT; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVERSE GENETICS; REVIEW; RNA VIRUS; SITE DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS; VACCINE PRODUCTION; VIRUS ATTENUATION; VIRUS GENOME;

ANIMALS; DNA, COMPLEMENTARY; GENETIC TECHNIQUES; HUMANS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; RNA VIRUSES; TECHNOLOGY, PHARMACEUTICAL; VIRAL VACCINES;

AVES; AVIAN INFLUENZA VIRUS; INFLUENZA VIRUS; RNA VIRUSES;

EID: 17144403829     PISSN: 14712598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14712598.5.3.369     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. LEDER K, SINCLAIR MI, MITAKAKIS TZ, HELLARD ME, FORBES A: A community-based study of respiratory episodes in Melbourne, Australia. Aust. NZ. J. Public Health (2003) 27(4):399-404.
2. ENARSON DA, CHRETIEN J: Epidemiology of respiratory infectious diseases. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. (1999) 5(3):128-135.
3. DOUGLAS RM: Respiratory tract infections as a public health challenge. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1999) 28(2):192-194.
4. ZAMAN K, BAQUI AH, YUNUS M et al: Acute respiratory infections in children: a community-based longitudinal study in rural Bangladesh. J. Trop. Pediatr. (1997) 43(3):133-137.
5. SINGH MP, NAYAR S: Magnitude of acute respiratory infections in under five children. J. Commun. Dis. (1996) 28(4):273-278.
6. MAKELA MJ, PUHAKKA T, RUUSKANEN O et al.: Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold. J Clin. Microbiol. (1998) 36(2):539-542.
7. WRIGHT PF, WEBSTER RG: Orthomyxoviruses. In: Fields Virology. Fields B, Knipe DM, Howley PM (Eds), Lippincott. Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, USA (2001).
8. COUCH RB, KEITEL WA, CATE TR: Improvement of inactivated influenza virus vaccines. J Infect. Dis. (1997) 176(Suppl. 1):S38-S44.
9. BELSHE RB, MENDELMAN PM, TREANOR J et al: The efficacy of live attenuated, cold-adapted, trivalent, intranasal influenza virus vaccine in children. N. Engl. J. Med. (1998) 338(20):1405-1412.
10. FENTON RJ, JENNlNGS R, POTTER CW: Differential response of ferrets to infection with virulent and avirulent influenza viruses: A possible marker of virus attenuation. Arch. Virol. (1977) 55:55-66.
11. JOHNSTON PR, FELDMAN S, THOMPSON JM, MAHONEY JD, WRIGHT PE: Immunity to influenza A virus infection in young children: A comparison of natural infection, live cold-adapted vaccine, and inactivated vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. (1986) 154:121-127.
12. KENDAL AP: Cold-adapted live attenuated influenza vaccines developed in Russia: can they contribute to meeting the needs for influenza control in other countries? Eur. J. Epidemiol (1997) 13:591-609.
13. POTTER CW: Attenuated influenza virus vaccines. Med. Virol. (1994) 4:279-292.
14. CROWE JE, BUI PT, SIBER GR et al.: Cold-passaged, temperature-sensitive mutants of human respiratory virus (RSV) are highly attenuated, immunogenic, and protective in seronegative chimpanzees, even when RSV antibodies are infused shortly before immunization. Vaccine (1995) 13(9):847-855.
15. MAASSAB HF, DEBORDE DC: Development and characterization of cold-adapted viruses for use as live virus vaccines. Vaccine (1985) 3:355-369.
16. ALEXANDROVA GI: Live influenza vaccine in Russia. In: Options for the Control of Influenza III. Brown LE, Hampson AW, Webster RG (Eds), Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1996):122-128.
17. BELSHE RB, NICHOL KL, BLACK SB et al.: Safety, efficacy, and effectiveness of live, attenuated, cold-adapted influenza vaccine in an indicated population aged 5-49 years. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2004) 39(7):920-927.
18. LI KS, GUAN Y, WANG J et al.: Genesis of a highly pathogenic and potentially pandemic H5N1 influenza virus in eastern Asia. Nature (2004) 430(6996):209-213.
19. WRIGHT PF, KARRON RA, BELSHE RB et al.: Evaluation of a live, cold-passaged, temperature-sensitive, respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidate in infancy. J Infect. Dis. (2000) 182(5):1331-1342.
20. BELSHE RB, HISSOM FK: Cold adaptation of parainfluenza virus type 3: induction of three phenotypic markers. J. Med. Virol. (1982) 10(4):235-242.
21. CROWE JE, BUI PT, DAVIS AR, CHANOCK RM, MURPHY BR: A further attenuated derivative of a cold-passaged temperature-sensitive mutant of human respiratory syncytial virus retains immunogenicity and protective efficacy against wild-type challenge in seronegative chimpanzees. Vaccine (1994) 12(9):783-790.
22. KIM HW, CANCHOLA JG, BRANDT CD et al: Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine. Am. J. Epidemiol. (1969) 89(4):422-434.
23. KAPIKIAN AZ, MITCHELL RH, CHANOCK RM, SHVEDOFF RA, STEWART CE: An epidemiologic study of altered clinical reactivity to respiratory syncytial (RS) virus infection in children previously vaccinated with an inactivated RS virus vaccine. Am. J. Epidemiol. (1969) 89(4):405-421.
24. FULGINITI VA, ELLER JJ, SIEBER OF et al.: Respiratory virus immunization. I. A field trial of two inactivated respiratory virus vaccines; an aqueous trivalent parainfluenza virus vaccine and an alum-precipitated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine. Am. J. Epidemiol. (1969) 89(4):435-448.
25. PERKINS JC, TUCKER DN, KNOPE HL et al.: Evidence for protective effect of an inactivated rhinovirus vaccine administered by the nasal route. Am. J. Epidemiol. (1969) 90(4):319-326.
26. GURWITH MJ, HORWITH GS, IMPELLIZZERI CA et al.: Current use and future directions of adenovirus vaccine. Semin. Respir. Infect. (1989) 4(4):299-303.
27. MCINTOSH K: The SARS coronavirus: rapid diagnostics in the limelight. Clin. Chem. (2003) 49(6 Pt 1):845-846.
28. TANG L, ZHU Q, QIN E et al.: Inactivated SARS-CoV vaccine prepared from whole virus induces a high level of neutralizing antibodies in BALB/c mice. DNA Cell Biol. (2004) 23(6):391-394.
29. BERG P: Co-chairman's remarks: reverse genetics: directed modification of DNA for functional analysis. Gene (1993) 135:261-264.
30. RACANIELLO VR, BALTIMORE D: Cloned poliovirus complementary DNA is infectious in mammalian cells. Science (1981) 214(4523):916-919.
31. TANIGUCHI T, PALMIERI M, WEISSMANN C: Qβ DNA-containing hybrid plasmids giving rise to Qβ phage formation in the bacterial host. Nature (1978) 274(5668):223-228.
32. NEUMANN G, WHITT MA, KAWAOKA Y: A decade after the generation of a negative-sense RNA virus from cloned cDNA - what have we learned? J. Gen. Virol. (2002) 83(Pt II):2635-2662.
33. NAITO S, ISHIHAMA A: Function and structure of RNA polymerase from vesicular stomatitis virus. J. Biol. Chem. (1976) 251(14):4307-4314.
34. EMERSON SU, YU Y: Both NS and L proteins are required for in vitro RNA synthesis by vesicular stomatitis virus. J. Virol. (1975) 15(6):1348-1356.
35. DE BP, BANERJEE AK: Requirements and functions of vesicular stomatitis virus L and NS proteins in the transcription process in vitro. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. (1985) 126(1):40-49.
36. SCHNELL MJ, MEBATSlON T, CONZELMANN KK: Infectious rabies viruses from cloned cDNA. EMBO J. (1994) 13(18):4195-4203. This paper described the first rescue of a negative-stranded RNA virus entirely from cDNA.
37. WYATT LS, MOSS B, ROZENBLATT S: Replication-deficient vaccinia virus encoding bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase for transient gene expression in mammalian cells. Virology (1995) 210(1):202-205.
38. KATO A, SAKAI Y, SHIODA T et al.: Initiation of Sendai virus multiplication from transfected cDNA or RNA with negative or positive sense. Genes Cells (1996) 1(6):569-579.
39. DURBIN AP, HALL SL, SIEW JW et al.: Recovery of infectious human parainfluenza virus type 3 from cDNA. Virology (1997) 235(2):323-332. Outlines the procedure for the rescue of hPIV3 from cDNA.
40. NEUMANN G, FELDMANN H, WATANABE S, LUKASHEVICH I, KAWAOKA Y: Reverse genetics demonstrates that proteolytic processing of the Ebola virus glycoprotein is not essential for replication in cell culture. J. Virol. (2002) 76(1):406-410.
41. BRIDGEN A, ELLIOTT RM: Rescue of a segmented negative-strand RNA virus entirely from cloned complementary DNAs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1996) 93(26):15400-15404.
42. FODOR E, DEVENISH L, ENGELHARDT OG et al.: Rescue of influenza A virus from recombinant DNA. J. Virol. (1999) 73(II):9679-9682. One of the original papers describing the rescue of influenza A virus entirely from cDNA.
43. NEUMANN G, WATANABE T, ITO H et al.: Generation of influenza A viruses entirely from cloned cDNAs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96:9345-9350. One of the original papers describing the rescue of influenza A virus entirely from cDNA.
44. COLLINS PL, HILL MG, CAMARGO E et al.: Production of infectious human respiratory syncytial virus from cloned cDNA confirms an essential role for the transcription elongation factor from the 5′ proximal open reading frame of the M2 mRNA in gene expression and provides a capability for vaccine development. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1995) 92:11563-11567. First paper describing the rescue of RSV from cDNA.
45. JIN H, CLARKE D, ZHOU HZ et al.: Recombinant human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) from cDNA and construction of subgroup A and B chimeric RSV. Virology (1998)251:206-214.
46. SCHICKLI JH, FLANDORFER A, NAKAYA T et al.: Plasmid-only rescue of influenza A virus vaccine candidates. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B (2001) 356:1965-1973.
47. NEUMANN G, WATANABE T, KAWAOKA Y: Plasmid-driven formation of influenza virus-like particles. J. Virol. (2000) 74(1):547-551.
48. HOFFMANN E, MAHMOOD K, YANG C et al.: Rescue of influenza B virus from eight plasmids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2002) 99(17):11411-11416.
49. KAWANO M, KAITO M, KOZUKA Y et al.: Recovery of infectious human parainfluenza type 2 virus from cDNA clones and properties of the defective virus without V-specific cysteine-rich domain. Virology (2001) 284(1):99-112.
50. HOFFMAN MA, BANERJEE AK: An infectious clone of human parainfluenza virus type 3. J. Virol. (1997) 71(6):4272-4277.
51. BIACCHESI S, SKIADOPOULOS MH, TRAN KC et al.: Recovery of human metapneumovirus from cDNA: optimization of growth in vitro and expression of additional genes. Virology (2004) 321(2):247-259.
52. HERFST S, DE GRAAF M, SCHICKLI JH et al.: Recovery of human metapneumovirus genetic lineages a and B from cloned cDNA. J. Virol. (2004) 78(15):8264-8270.
53. KAPOOR QS, CHINNADURAI G: Method for introducing site-specific mutations into adenovirus 2 genome: construction of a small deletion mutant in VA-RNAI gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1981) 78(4):2184-2188.
54. MIZUTANI S, COLONNO RJ: In vitro synthesis of an infectious RNA from cDNA clones of human rhinovirus type 14. J. Virol. (1985) 56(2):628-632.
55. THIEL V, HEROLD J, SCHELLE B, SIDDELL SG: Infectious RNA transcribed in vitro from a cDNA copy of the human coronavirus genome cloned in vaccinia virus. J. Gen. Virol. (2001) 82(Pt 6):1273-1281.
56. YOUNT B, CURTIS KM, FRITZ EA et al.: Reverse genetics with a full-length infectious cDNA of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2003) 100(22):12995-13000.
57. TENG MN, COLLINS PL: Identification of the respiratory syncytial virus proteins required for formation and passage of helper-dependant infectious particles. J. Virol. (1998) 72(7):5707-5716.
58. HOFFMANN E, NEUMANN G, KAWAOKA Y, HOBOM G, WEBSTER RG: A DNA transfection system for generation of influenza A virus from eight plasmids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2000) 97(11):6180-6113.
59. HOFFMANN E, NEUMANN G, HOBOM G, WEBSTER RG, KAWAOKA Y: 'Ambisense' approach for the generation of influenza A virus: vRNA and mRNA synthesis from one template. Virology (2000) 267(2):310-317.
60. MUSTER T, SUBBARAO EK, ENAMI M, MURPHY BR, PALESE P: An influenza A virus containing influenza B virus 5′ and 3′ noncoding regions on the neuraminidase gene is attenuated in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1991) 88:5177-5181.
61. MURPHY BR, PARK EJ, GOTTLIEB P, SUBBARAO K: An influenza A live attenuated reassortant virus possessing three temperature-sensitive mutations in the PB2 polymerase gene rapidly loses temperature sensitivity following replication in hamsters. Vaccine (1997) 15:1372-1378.
62. PALESE P, GARCIA-SASTRE A: Influenza vaccines: present and future. J. Clin. Invest. (2002) 110(1):9-13.
63. GARCÍA-SASTRE A, EGOROV A, MATASSOV D et al.: Influenza A Virus lacking the NS1 gene replicates in interferon-deficient systems. Virology (1998) 252:324-330.
64. TALON J, SALVATORE M, O'NEILL RE et al.: Influenza A and B viruses expressing altered NS1 proteins: A vaccine approach. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2000) 97(8):4309-4314.
65. WATANABE T, WATANABE S, KIDA H, KAWAOKA Y: Influenza A virus with defective M2 ion channel activity as a live vaccine. Virology (2002) 299(2):266-270.
66. CATCHPOLE AP, MINGAY LJ, FODOR E, BROWNLEE GG: Alternative base pairs attenuate influenza A virus when introduced into the duplex region of the conserved viral RNA promoter of either the NS or the PA gene. J. Gen. Virol. (2003) 84(3):507-515.
67. HOFFMANN E, KRAUSS S, PEREZ D, WEBBY R, WEBSTER RG: Eight-plasmid system for rapid generation of influenza virus vaccines. Vaccine (2002) 20(25-26):3165-3170.
68. KILBOURNE ED: Future influenza vaccines and the use of genetic recombinants. Bull. World Health Organ. (1969)41:643-645.
69. GERDIL C: The annual production cycle for influenza vaccine. Vaccine (2003) 21:1776-1779.
70. AUDSLEY JM, TANNOCK GA: The role of cell culture vaccines in the next influenza pandemic. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. (2004) 4(5):709-717.
71. OZAKI H, GOVORKOVA EA, LI C et al.: Generation of high-yielding influenza A viruses in African green monkey kidney (Vero) cells by reverse genetics. J. Virol. (2004) 78(4):1851-1857.
72. MONTAGNON BJ, FANGET B, NICOLAS AJ: The large-scale cultivation of VERO cells in micro-carrier culture for virus vaccine production. Preliminary results for killed poliovirus vaccine. Dev. Biol. Stand. (1981) 47:55-64.
73. MONTAGNON BJ, FANGET B, VINCENT-FALQUET JC: Industrial-scale production of inactivated poliovirus vaccine prepared by culture of Vero cells on microcarrier. Rev. Infect. Dis. (1984) 6(Suppl. 2):S341-S344.
74. QUIAMBAO BP, LANG J, VITAL S et al.: Immunogenicity and effectiveness of post-exposure rabies prophylaxis with a new chromatographically purified Vero-cell rabies vaccine (CPRV): a two-stage randomised clinical trial in the Philippines. Acta Trop. (2000) 75(1):39-52.
75. WANG XJ, LANG J, TAO XR et al.: Immunogenicity and safety of purified Vero-cell rabies vaccine in severely rabies-exposed patients in China. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health (2000) 31(2):287-294.
76. KISTNER O, BARRETT PN, MUNDT W et al.: Development of a Vero cell-derived influenza whole virus vaccine. Dev. Biol. Stand. (1999) 98:101-110.
77. KISTNER O, BARRETT PN, MUNDT W et al.: Development of a mammalian cell (Vero) derived candidate influenza virus vaccine. Vaccine (1998) 16(9-10):960-968.
78. BRUHL P, KERSCHBAUM A, KISTNER O et al.: Humoral and cell-mediated immunity to vero cell-derived influenza vaccine. Vaccine (2000) 19(9-10): 1149-1158.
79. WEBBY RJ, WEBSTER RG: Are we ready for pandemic influenza? Science (2003) 302:1519-1522.
80. SUBBARAO K, KLIMOV A, KATZ J et al.: Characterization of an avian influenza A (H5N1) virus isolated from a child with a fatal respiratory illness. Science (1998) 279:393-396.
81. SUAREZ DL, PERDUE ML, COX N et al.: Comparisons of highly virulent H5N1 influenza A viruses isolated from humans and chickens from Hong Kong. J. Virol. (1998) 72:6678-6688.
82. SHORTRIDGE KF, ZHOU NN, GUAN Y et al.: Characterization of avian H5N1 influenza viruses from poultry in Hong Kong. Virology (1998) 252:331-342.
83. SUBBARAO K, CHEN H, SWAYNE D et al.: Evaluation of a genetically modified reassortant H5N1 influenza A virus vaccine candidate generated by plasmid-based reverse genetics. Virology (2003) 305(1):192-200. Highlights an important role of reverse genetics in the preparation of vaccine candidates against highly pathogenic avian influenza.
84. WEBBY RJ, PEREZ DR, COLEMAN JS et al.: Responsiveness to a pandemic alert: use of reverse genetics for rapid development of influenza vaccines. Lancet (2004) 363(9415):1099-1103.
85. BLOUNT RE JR, MORRIS JA, SAVAGE RE: Recovery of cytopathogenic agent from chimpanzees with coryza. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. (1956) 92(3):544-549.
86. MURPHY BR, PRINCE GA, WALSH EE et al.: Dissociation between serum neutralizing and glycoprotein antibody responses of infants and children who received inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine. J. Clin. Microbiol. (1986) 24(2):197-202.
87. OPENSHAW PJ, CULLEY FJ, OLSZEWSKA W: Immunopathogenesis of vaccine-enhanced RSV disease. Vaccine (2002) 20:S27-S31.
88. HANCOCK GE, SPEELMAN DJ, HEERS K et al.: Generation of atypical pulmonary inflammatory responses in BALB/c mice after immunization with the native attachment (G) glycoprotein of respiratory syncytial virus. J. Virol. (1996) 70(11):7783-7791.
89. GRAHAM BS, HENDERSON GS, TANG YW et al.: Priming immunization determines T helper cytokine mRNA expression patterns in lungs of mice challenged with respiratory syncytial virus. J. Immunol. (1993) 151(4):2032-2040.
90. CONNORS M, COLLINS PL, FIRESTONE CY et al.: Cotton rats previously immunized with a chimeric RSV FG glycoprotein develop enhanced pulmonary pathology when infected with RSV, a phenomenon not encountered following immunization with vaccinia-RSV recombinants or RSV. Vaccine (1992) 10(7):475-484.
91. MURPHY BR, SOTNIKOV AV, LAWRENCE LA, BANKS SM, PRINCE GA: Enhanced pulmonary histopathology is observed in cotton rats immunized with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or purified F glycoprotein and challenged with RSV 3-6 months after immunization. Vaccine (1990) 8(5):497-502.
92. DUDAS RA, KARRON RA: Respiratory syncytial virus vaccines. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. (1998) 11(3):430-439.
93. COLLINS PL, WHITEHEAD SS, BUKREYEV A et al.: Rational design of live-attenuated recombinant vaccine virus for human respiratory syncytial virus by reverse genetics. Adv. Virus Res. (1999) 54:423-451.
94. TENG MN, COLLINS PL: Altered growth characteristics of recombinant respiratory syncytial virus which do not produce NS2 protein. J. Virol. (1999) 73(1):466-473.
95. WHITEHEAD SS, BUKREYEV A, TENG MN et al.: Recombinant respiratory syncytial virus bearing a deletion of either the NS2 or SH gene is attenuated in chimpanzees. J. Virol. (1999) 73(4):3438-3442.
96. TENG MN, WHITEHEAD SS, COLLINS PL: Contribution of the respiratory syncytial virus G glycoprotein and its secreted and membrane-bound forms to virus replication in vitro and in vivo. Virology (2001) 289:283-296.
97. TENG MN, WHITEHEAD SS, BERMINGHAM A et al.: Recombinant respiratory syncytial virus that does not express the NS1 or M2-2 protein is highly attenuated and immunogenic in chimpanzees. J. Virol. (2000) 74(19):9317-9321.
98. KARRON RA, BUONAGURIO DA, GEORGUIS AF et al.: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) SH and G proteins are not essential for viral replication in vitro: Clinical evaluation and molecular characterization of a cold-passaged, attenuated RSV subgroup B mutant. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94:13961-13966.
99. JIN H, CHENG X, ZHOU HZ, LI S, SEDDIQUI A: Respiratory syncytial virus that lacks open reading frame 2 of the M2 gene (M2-2) has altered growth characteristics and is attenuated in rodents. J. Virol. (2000) 74(1)74-82.
100. JIN H, ZHOU H. CHENG X et al.: Recombinant respiratory syncytial viruses with deletions in the NS1, NS2, SH, and M2-2 genes are attenuated in vitro and in vivo. Virology (2000) 273(1):210-218.
101. JIN H, CHENG X, TRAINA-DORGE VL et al.: Evaluation of recombinant respiratory syncytial virus gene deletion mutants in African green monkeys for their potential as live attenuated vaccine candidates. Vaccine (2003) 21(25-26):3647-3652.
102. BERMINGHAM A, COLLINS PL: The M2-2 protein of human respiratory syncytial virus is a regulatory factor involved in the balance between RNA replication and transcription. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96(20):11259-11264.
103. KARRON RA, BUONAGURIO DA, GEORGIU AF et al.: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) SH and G proteins are not essential for viral replication in vitro: Clinical evaluation and molecular characterization of a cold-passaged, attenuated RSV subgroup B mutant. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94(25):13961-13966.
104. COLLINS PL, MURPHY BR: Respiratory syncytial virus: Reverse genetics and vaccine strategies. Virology (2002) 296:204-211.
105. BUKREYEV A, BELYAKOV IM, BERZOFSKY JA, MURPHY BR, COLLINS PL: Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor expressed by recombinant respiratory syncytial virus attenuates viral replication and increases the level of pulmonary antigen-presenting cells. J. Virol. (2001) 75(24):12128-12140.
106. CHIN J, MAGOFFIN RL, SHEARER LA, SCHIEBLE JH, LENNETTE EH: Field evaluation of a respiratory syncytial virus vaccine and a trivalent parainfluenza virus vaccine in a pediatric population. Am. J. Epidemiol. (1969) 89(4):449-463.
107. HALL SL, MURPHY BR, VAN WYKE COELINGH KL: Protection of cotton rats by immunization with the human parainfluenza virus type 3 fusion (F) glycoprotein expressed on the surface of insect cells infected with a recombinant baculovirus. Vaccine (1991) 9(9):659-667.
108. LEHMAN DJ, ROOF LL, BRIDEAU RJ et al.: Comparison of soluble and secreted forms of human parainfluenza virus type 3 glycoproteins expressed from mammalian and insect cells as subunit vaccines. J. Gen. Virol. (1993) 74(Pt 3):459-469.
109. VAN WYKE COELINGH KL, WINTER CC, TIERNEY EL, LONDON WT, MURPHY BR: Attenuation of bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 in nonhuman primates and its ability to confer immunity to human parainfluenza virus type 3 challenge. J. Infect. Dis. (1988) 157(4):655-662.
110. KARRON RA, WRIGHT PF, HALL SL et al.: A live attenuated bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 vaccine is safe, infectious, immunogenic, and phenotypically stable in infants and children. J. Infect. Dis. (1995) 171(5):1107-1114.
111. HALL SL, STOKES A, TIERNEY EL et al.: Cold-passaged human parainfluenza type 3 viruses contain ts and non-ts mutations leading to attenuation in rhesus monkeys. Virus Res. (1992) 22(3):173-184.
112. KARRON RA, BELSHE RB, WRIGHT PF et al.: A live human parainfluenza type 3 virus vaccine is attenuated and immunogenic in young infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2003) 22(5):394-405.
113. TAO T, SKIADOPOULOS MH, DAVOODI F et al.: Construction of a live-attenuated bivalent vaccine virus against human parainfluenza virus (PIV) types 1 and 2 using a recombinant PIV3 backbone. Vaccine (2001) 19(27):3620-3631.
114. TAO T, DAVOODI F, CHO C et al.: A live attenuated recombinant chimeric parainfluenza virus (PIV) candidate vaccine containing the hemagglutinin- neuraminidase and fusion glycoproteins of PIV1 and the remaining proteins from PIV3 induces resistance to PIV1 even in animals immune to PIV3. Vaccine (2000) 18:1359-1366.
115. TAO T, SKIADOPOULOS MH, DURBIN AP et al.: A live attenuated chimeric recombinant parainfluenza virus (PIV) encoding the internal proteins of PIV type 3 and the surface glycoproteins of PIV type 1 induces complete resistance to PIV1 challenge and partial resistance to PIV3 challenge. Vaccine (1999) 17(9-10):1100-1108.
116. DURBIN AP, MCAULIFFE JM, COLLINS PL, MURPHY BR: Mutations in the C, D, and V open reading frames of human parainfluenza virus type 3 attenuate replication in rodents and primates. Virology (1999) 261(2):319-330.
117. BAILLY JE, MCAULIFFE JM, DURBIN AP et al.: A recombinant human parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV3) in which the nucleocapsid N protein has been replaced by that of bovine PIV3 is attenuated in primates. J. Virol. (2000) 74(7):3188-3195.