China's evolving civil-military relations: Creeping guojiahua

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 227-244

  Scobell, Andrew ^a  

^a U S ARMY WAR COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 14944342067     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0503100204     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. H. Lyman Miller, "The 10th National People's Congress and China's Leadership Transition," China Leadership Monitor 7 (Summer 2003), available online at www.chinaleadershipmonitor.org
2. For an overview, see David Shambaugh, Modernizing the Chinese Military (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
3. You Ji, "From Revolutionary Tool to Professional Military," in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Military Professionalism in Asia: Conceptual and Empirical Perspectives (Honolulu, HI: East-West Center, 2001), 111-135.
4. The penetration model is succinctly described by Eric A. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977), 15-18. The military in uniform model is espoused by Amos Perlmutter and William M. LeoGrande, "The Party in Uniform: Toward a Theory of Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems," American Political Science Review 76 (December 1982):778-789.
5. The penetration model is succinctly described by Eric A. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977), 15-18. The military in uniform model is espoused by Amos Perlmutter and William M. LeoGrande, "The Party in Uniform: Toward a Theory of Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems," American Political Science Review 76 (December 1982):778-789.
6. James C. Mulvenon, "China: Conditional Compliance," in Muthiah Alagappa (ed.), Coercion and Governance in Asia: The Declining Political Role of the Military (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 317, 321.
7. You, "From Revolutionary Tool."
8. Harlan W. Jencks, From Muskets to Missiles: Politics and Professionalism, 1945-1981 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982); Ellis Joffe, The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).
9. Harlan W. Jencks, From Muskets to Missiles: Politics and Professionalism, 1945-1981 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982); Ellis Joffe, The Chinese Army After Mao (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).
10. See, for example, You, "From Revolutionary Tool," 116; Andrew Scobell, China's Use of Military Force: Beyond the Great Wall and the Long March (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 52.
11. See, for example, You, "From Revolutionary Tool," 116; Andrew Scobell, China's Use of Military Force: Beyond the Great Wall and the Long March (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 52.
12. According to Cheng Hsiao-shih, "party control of military has never been institutionalized in the PRC." See Party-Military Relations in the PRC and Taiwan: The Paradoxes of Power (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), 51.
13. I am paraphrasing Richard J. Latham, "China's Party-Army Relations After June 1989: A Case for Miles' Law?" in Richard H. Yang, Peter Kien-hong Yu, and Andrew N. Yang (eds.), China's Military: The PLA in 1990/1991 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), 112.
14. Tai Ming Cheung, "The Influence of the Gun: China's Central Military Commission and Its Relationship with the Military, Party, and State Decision Making Systems," in David M. Lampton (ed.), The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 61-90.
15. "[I]t is an unwritten ... rule of Chinese politics that the country's paramount leader must... be in charge of the CMC." Cheung, "The Influence of the Gun," 62.
16. Scobell, China's Use of Military Force, 58-66.
17. James Mulvenon, "Party-Army Relations Since the 16th Party Congress: The Battle of the 'Two Centers'?" in Andrew Scobell and Larry Wortzel (eds.), Civil-Military Change in China: Elites, Institutes, and Ideas After the 16th Party Congress (Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 2004), 11-48.
18. Wang Wenjie, "Advance Development by Leaps and Bounds in Our Military Modernization Under the Guidance of the 'Three Represents'..." Jiefang jun bao [Liberation Army Daily], hereafter JFJB, March 11, 2003. Neither Jiang or Hu is mentioned by name, but it is unambiguous to whom they refer and clearly critical of Jiang.
19. James Mulvenon, "The Crucible of Tragedy: SARS, the Ming 361 Accident, and Chinese Party-Army Relations," China Leadership Monitor 8 (Autumn 2003), available online at www.chinaleadershipmonitor.org
20. Mulvenon, "The Crucible."
21. Shambaugh, Modernizing the Chinese Military, chapter 2.
22. Andrew Scobell, "Seventy-five Years of Civil-Military Relations: Lessons Learned," in Laurie Burkitt, Andrew Scobell, and Larry Wortzel (eds.), The PLA at 75: The Lessons of History (Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 2003), 438.
23. Andrew Scobell, "Why the People's Army Fired on the People: The Chinese Military and Tiananmen," Armed Forces & Society 18, 2 (Spring 1992): 193-213.
24. See, for example, the discussion in Lt. Gen. Li Xinliang, Commander of the Shenyang Military Region, "Unswervingly Follow the Road of Quality Building in the Army with Chinese Characteristics...." Zhongguo junshi kexue [Chinese Military Science] no. 3 (August 1997), translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-China (hereafter FBIS-CHI); Chen Yutian, "In Running the Army 'Strictness' Should be Put First," JFJB, January 19, 2003; Commentator, "Further Stepping Up Ethical Construction in Our Armed Forces," JFJB, September 20, 2003.
25. See, for example, the discussion in Lt. Gen. Li Xinliang, Commander of the Shenyang Military Region, "Unswervingly Follow the Road of Quality Building in the Army with Chinese Characteristics...." Zhongguo junshi kexue [Chinese Military Science] no. 3 (August 1997), translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-China (hereafter FBIS-CHI); Chen Yutian, "In Running the Army 'Strictness' Should be Put First," JFJB, January 19, 2003; Commentator, "Further Stepping Up Ethical Construction in Our Armed Forces," JFJB, September 20, 2003.
26. See, for example, the discussion in Lt. Gen. Li Xinliang, Commander of the Shenyang Military Region, "Unswervingly Follow the Road of Quality Building in the Army with Chinese Characteristics...." Zhongguo junshi kexue [Chinese Military Science] no. 3 (August 1997), translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-China (hereafter FBIS-CHI); Chen Yutian, "In Running the Army 'Strictness' Should be Put First," JFJB, January 19, 2003; Commentator, "Further Stepping Up Ethical Construction in Our Armed Forces," JFJB, September 20, 2003.
27. See, for example, the discussion in Lt. Gen. Li Xinliang, Commander of the Shenyang Military Region, "Unswervingly Follow the Road of Quality Building in the Army with Chinese Characteristics...." Zhongguo junshi kexue [Chinese Military Science] no. 3 (August 1997), translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-China (hereafter FBIS-CHI); Chen Yutian, "In Running the Army 'Strictness' Should be Put First," JFJB, January 19, 2003; Commentator, "Further Stepping Up Ethical Construction in Our Armed Forces," JFJB, September 20, 2003.
28. Willy Wo-Lap Lam, China After Deng Xiaoping: The Power Struggle in Beijing Since Tiananmen (Hong Kong: P.A. Professional Consultants, 1995), 232.
29. "Exclusive interview with Lt. Gen. Xiong Ziren, Commander of the PLA Garrison Troops in Hong Kong," Wen Wei Po (Hong Kong) February 28, 2002 in FBIS-CHI.
30. "Exclusive Interview with Lt. Gen. Xiong Ziren"; Xiong Ziren, "Stationing the Garrison and Commanding the Army According to Law..." Qiushi [Seeking Truth] (Beijing), Internet version June 16, 2002, translated in FBIS-CHI June 24, 2002.
31. Xiong, "Stationing the Garrison."
32. "Law of the People's Republic of China on National Defense," Xinhua Domestic Service March 18, 1997 [translated in FBIS-CHI] article 18. On the regulations and legislation, see Thomas A. Bickford, "Regularization and the Chinese People's Liberation Army: An Assessment of Change," Asian Survey LX, 3 (May/June 2000): 456-474. 27. Cheng, Party-Military Relations, 46. For the logic of this, see a commentary on the constitutionalism published in 1993 quoted in Jeremy T. Paltiel, "Civil-Military Relations in China: An Object to Constitutionalism?" Journal of Chinese Law 9, 1 (Spring 1995):48-49. Paltiel calls the state CMC "legal fiction" (p. 49).
33. "Law of the People's Republic of China on National Defense," Xinhua Domestic Service March 18, 1997 [translated in FBIS-CHI] article 18. On the regulations and legislation, see Thomas A. Bickford, "Regularization and the Chinese People's Liberation Army: An Assessment of Change," Asian Survey LX, 3 (May/June 2000): 456-474. 27. Cheng, Party-Military Relations, 46. For the logic of this, see a commentary on the constitutionalism published in 1993 quoted in Jeremy T. Paltiel, "Civil-Military Relations in China: An Object to Constitutionalism?" Journal of Chinese Law 9, 1 (Spring 1995):48-49. Paltiel calls the state CMC "legal fiction" (p. 49).
34. "Law of the People's Republic of China on National Defense," Xinhua Domestic Service March 18, 1997 [translated in FBIS-CHI] article 18. On the regulations and legislation, see Thomas A. Bickford, "Regularization and the Chinese People's Liberation Army: An Assessment of Change," Asian Survey LX, 3 (May/June 2000): 456-474. 27. Cheng, Party-Military Relations, 46. For the logic of this, see a commentary on the constitutionalism published in 1993 quoted in Jeremy T. Paltiel, "Civil-Military Relations in China: An Object to Constitutionalism?" Journal of Chinese Law 9, 1 (Spring 1995):48-49. Paltiel calls the state CMC "legal fiction" (p. 49).
35. "Law of the People's Republic of China on National Defense," Xinhua Domestic Service March 18, 1997 [translated in FBIS-CHI] article 18. On the regulations and legislation, see Thomas A. Bickford, "Regularization and the Chinese People's Liberation Army: An Assessment of Change," Asian Survey LX, 3 (May/June 2000): 456-474. 27. Cheng, Party-Military Relations, 46. For the logic of this, see a commentary on the constitutionalism published in 1993 quoted in Jeremy T. Paltiel, "Civil-Military Relations in China: An Object to Constitutionalism?" Journal of Chinese Law 9, 1 (Spring 1995):48-49. Paltiel calls the state CMC "legal fiction" (p. 49).
36. On the triad of control mechanisms, see David Shambaugh, "The Soldier and the State in China: The Political Work System in the People's Liberation Army," China Quarterly, 127 (September 1991):527-568. On what soldiers identify with, see Cheng, Party-Military Relations.
37. On the triad of control mechanisms, see David Shambaugh, "The Soldier and the State in China: The Political Work System in the People's Liberation Army," China Quarterly, 127 (September 1991):527-568. On what soldiers identify with, see Cheng, Party-Military Relations.
38. On the significance of Leading Small Groups and the military's role in them, see Taeho Kim, "Leading Small Groups: Managing All Under Heaven," in David M. Finkelstein and Maryanne Kivlehan, China's Leadership in the 21st Century: The Rise of the Fourth Generation (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2003), 121-139; and Cheung, "The Influence of the Gun."
39. On the significance of Leading Small Groups and the military's role in them, see Taeho Kim, "Leading Small Groups: Managing All Under Heaven," in David M. Finkelstein and Maryanne Kivlehan, China's Leadership in the 21st Century: The Rise of the Fourth Generation (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2003), 121-139; and Cheung, "The Influence of the Gun."
40. On the CMC and MND, see the discussion in Paltiel, "Civil-Military Relations," 48-50.
41. "Education Background of Army NPC Deputies Up," Xinhua (Beijing), in English on March 3, 2003 in FBIS-CHI.
42. Edward L. Dreyer, "Military Continuities: The PLA and Imperial China," in William W. Whitson (ed.), The Military and Political Power in China in the 1970s (New York: Praeger, 1972).
43. James Mulvenon, Soldiers of Fortune: The Rise and Fall of the Chinese Military Business Complex (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
44. Mulvenon, "China," 328-331.
45. Andrew Scobell, Going Out of Business: Divesting the Commercial Interests of Asia's Socialist Soldiers. Occasional Paper No. 3, Politics and Security Series (Honolulu, HI:.East-West Center, January 2000).
46. See the discussion in Shiping Zheng, Party vs. State in Post-1949 China: The Institutional Dilemma (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 248.
47. "A Letter to the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China," in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. III, 1982-1992 (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1994), 312-313.
48. James Mulvenon, Professionalization of the Senior Chinese Office Corps: Trends and Implications (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1997); Shambaugh, Modernizing the Chinese Military.
49. James Mulvenon, Professionalization of the Senior Chinese Office Corps: Trends and Implications (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1997); Shambaugh, Modernizing the Chinese Military.
50. See, for example, Lt. Gen. Wen Zongren, "Consistently Uphold the Party's Absolute Leadership over the Army...," Zhongguo Junshi Kexue [Chinese military science] 4 (October 2001), 1-10; interviews with military analysts in Beijing, May 2002.
51. See, for example, Lt. Gen. Wen Zongren, "Consistently Uphold the Party's Absolute Leadership over the Army...," Zhongguo Junshi Kexue [Chinese military science] 4 (October 2001), 1-10; interviews with military analysts in Beijing, May 2002.
52. Bengt Abrahamsson, Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1972).
53. Lt. Gen. Wen, "Consistently Uphold," 9.
54. Mulvenon, "The Battle."
55. I b i d.
56. Chinese Military Power, Report of an Independent Task Force Sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations, Harold Brown, Chair (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2003), 4.
57. "Major General Ding Jiye Says Defense Spending Much Lower Than World Average," Xinhua News Agency in English, March 8, 2003.
58. Joseph Kahn, "Chinese Officers Say Taiwan's Leaders Are Near Abyss of War," New York Times, December 4, 2003; Andrew Scobell, "Show of Force: Chinese Soldiers, Statesmen, and the 1995-96 Taiwan Strait Crisis," Political Science Quarterly 115, 2 (Summer 2000): 227-246.
59. Joseph Kahn, "Chinese Officers Say Taiwan's Leaders Are Near Abyss of War," New York Times, December 4, 2003; Andrew Scobell, "Show of Force: Chinese Soldiers, Statesmen, and the 1995-96 Taiwan Strait Crisis," Political Science Quarterly 115, 2 (Summer 2000): 227-246.
60. Andrew Scobell, "After Deng, What?: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic Transition in China," Problems of Post-Communism 44, 5 (Sept-Oct 1997): 26-27.
61. "The greatest change in civil-military relations" in the post-communist era was "breaking the link between a ruling party ... and the ... military." Christopher D. Jones and Natalie Mychajlyszyn, "Overview: Civil-Military Relations in Central and Eastern Europe in Former Communist Societies," Armed Forces & Society 28, 3 (Spring 2002): 383. The eight post-communist states surveyed in this special issue are Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Hungary. See also Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 232.
62. "The greatest change in civil-military relations" in the post-communist era was "breaking the link between a ruling party ... and the ... military." Christopher D. Jones and Natalie Mychajlyszyn, "Overview: Civil-Military Relations in Central and Eastern Europe in Former Communist Societies," Armed Forces & Society 28, 3 (Spring 2002): 383. The eight post-communist states surveyed in this special issue are Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Hungary. See also Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 232.
63. M. Taylor Fravel, "Toward Civilian Supremacy: Civil-Military Relations in Taiwan's Democratization," Armed Forces & Society 29, 1 (Fall 2002): 57-84.