Policy transfer in the European Union: An institutionalist perspective

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 103-126

  Bulmer, Simon ^a   Padgett, Stephen ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 13444261269     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123405000050     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Learning from Abroad: The Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy-Making', Governance, 13 (2000), 5-24, pp. 6-7.
2. Helen Wallace, 'Analysing and Explaining Policies', in H. Wallace and W. Wallace, eds, Policy-Making in the European Union, 4th edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 65-81, at p. 68.
3. Claudio M. Radaelli, 'Policy Transfer in the European Union; Institutional Isomorphism as a Source of Legitimacy', Governance, 13 (2000), 25-43, p. 26.
4. Elizabeth Bomberg and John Peterson, 'Policy Transfer and Europeanization: Passing the Heineken Test?' (Queen's Papers on Europeanization, No. 2/2000, at http://www.qub.ac.uk/ies/), p. 7.
5. Andrew Jordan, Rüdiger Würzel and A. Zito, 'Innovating with "New" Environmental Policy Instruments: Convergence or Divergence in the European Union?' (paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Los Angeles, 2000), p. 7; Bomberg and Peterson, 'Policy Transfer and Europeanization', p. 6.
6. Andrew Jordan, Rüdiger Würzel and A. Zito, 'Innovating with "New" Environmental Policy Instruments: Convergence or Divergence in the European Union?' (paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Los Angeles, 2000), p. 7; Bomberg and Peterson, 'Policy Transfer and Europeanization', p. 6.
7. This categorization of the modes of governance derives from Fritz Scharpf, Games Real Actors Play: Actor-Centred Institutionalism in Policy Research (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997).
8. Wolfgang Streeck, 'Neo-Voluntarism: A New European Social Policy Regime? ' in Gary Marks, Fritz Scharpf, Philippe Schmitter and Wolfgang Streeck, eds, Governance in the European Union (London: Sage, 1996), pp. 644-94, at p. 77.
9. Radaelli, 'Policy Transfer in the European Union', p. 29.
10. Bomberg and Peterson, 'Policy Transfer and Europeanization', p. 12.
11. Radaelli, 'Policy Transfer in the European Union', p. 29; p. 25.
12. David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who Learns What and From Whom? A Review of the Policy Transfer Literature', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 343-57, at p. 344.
13. See P. A. Hall, 'The Movement from Keynesianism to Monetarism: Institutional Analysis and British Economic Policy in the 1970s', in S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 90-113, at p. 91; M. Jachtenfuchs, 'Conceptualizing European Governance', in K. E. Jørgensen, ed., Reflective Approaches to European Governance (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 39-50, at p. 46: J. March and J. P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: Free Press, 1989); P. A. Hall and C. R. Taylor 'Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 936-58: B. Rosamond, Theories of European Integration (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 109-12.
14. See P. A. Hall, 'The Movement from Keynesianism to Monetarism: Institutional Analysis and British Economic Policy in the 1970s', in S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 90-113, at p. 91; M. Jachtenfuchs, 'Conceptualizing European Governance', in K. E. Jørgensen, ed., Reflective Approaches to European Governance (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 39-50, at p. 46: J. March and J. P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: Free Press, 1989); P. A. Hall and C. R. Taylor 'Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 936-58: B. Rosamond, Theories of European Integration (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 109-12.
15. See P. A. Hall, 'The Movement from Keynesianism to Monetarism: Institutional Analysis and British Economic Policy in the 1970s', in S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 90-113, at p. 91; M. Jachtenfuchs, 'Conceptualizing European Governance', in K. E. Jørgensen, ed., Reflective Approaches to European Governance (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 39-50, at p. 46: J. March and J. P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: Free Press, 1989); P. A. Hall and C. R. Taylor 'Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 936-58: B. Rosamond, Theories of European Integration (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 109-12.
16. See P. A. Hall, 'The Movement from Keynesianism to Monetarism: Institutional Analysis and British Economic Policy in the 1970s', in S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 90-113, at p. 91; M. Jachtenfuchs, 'Conceptualizing European Governance', in K. E. Jørgensen, ed., Reflective Approaches to European Governance (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 39-50, at p. 46: J. March and J. P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: Free Press, 1989); P. A. Hall and C. R. Taylor 'Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 936-58: B. Rosamond, Theories of European Integration (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 109-12.
17. See P. A. Hall, 'The Movement from Keynesianism to Monetarism: Institutional Analysis and British Economic Policy in the 1970s', in S. Steinmo, K. Thelen and F. Longstreth, eds, Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 90-113, at p. 91; M. Jachtenfuchs, 'Conceptualizing European Governance', in K. E. Jørgensen, ed., Reflective Approaches to European Governance (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 39-50, at p. 46: J. March and J. P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: Free Press, 1989); P. A. Hall and C. R. Taylor 'Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 936-58: B. Rosamond, Theories of European Integration (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 109-12.
18. It is now widely accepted that no single policy-making model can capture the multiple forms of EU governance. See John Peterson, 'Decision-Making in the European Union: Towards a Framework for Analysis', Journal of European Public Policy, 2 (1995), 69-93; John Peterson and Elizabeth Bomberg, Decision-Making in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1999).
19. It is now widely accepted that no single policy-making model can capture the multiple forms of EU governance. See John Peterson, 'Decision-Making in the European Union: Towards a Framework for Analysis', Journal of European Public Policy, 2 (1995), 69-93; John Peterson and Elizabeth Bomberg, Decision-Making in the European Union (Basingstoke, Hants.: Macmillan, 1999).
20. For instance, Dolowitz and Marsh, 'Who Learns What and From Whom?'.
21. For a review of the literature on governance by negotiation in the EU, see Ole Elgström and Michael Smith, 'Introduction: Negotiation and Policy-Making in the European Union: Process, System and Order', Journal of European Public Policy, 7 (2000), 673-83.
22. Michael Mintrom, 'Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation', American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1997), 738-70; J. L. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovation Among the American States', American Political Science Review, 63 (1969), 880-99.
23. Michael Mintrom, 'Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation', American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1997), 738-70; J. L. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovation Among the American States', American Political Science Review, 63 (1969), 880-99.
24. An example of unilateral policy-shopping is the transfer from Wisconsin to Britain of aspects of child-support policy. See David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Learning from Abroad: The Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy-Making', Governance, 13 (2000), 5-24, pp. 17-21.
25. Richard Rose, Lesson Drawing in Public Policy: A Guide to Learning Across Time and Space (Chatham, N. J.: Chatham House, 1993), pp. 30-1; Dolowitz and Marsh, 'Learning from Abroad', p. 13.
26. Richard Rose, Lesson Drawing in Public Policy: A Guide to Learning Across Time and Space (Chatham, N. J.: Chatham House, 1993), pp. 30-1; Dolowitz and Marsh, 'Learning from Abroad', p. 13.
27. A. Stone Sweet and W. Sandholtz, 'Integration, Supranational Governance, and the Institutionalization of the European Polity', in W. Sandholtz and A. Stone Sweet, eds., European Integration and Supranational Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 9. We point out that, unlike Stone Sweet and Sandholtz, we are not concerned with the dynamics of integration but simply with taking snapshots to locate particular governance regimes in terms of their institutionalization.
28. For a review of institutional instruments, see Simon Bulmer, 'The Governance of the European Union: A New Institutionalist Approach', Journal of Public Policy, 13 (1994), 364-70.
29. For an account of how these principles transformed the European judicial order, see Joseph Weiler, 'The Transformation of Europe', Yale Law Journal, 100 (1991), 2405-83.
30. Scharpf, Games Real Actors Play, pp. 211-12.
31. Scharpf, Games Real Actors Play, pp. 210-11.
32. We concentrate on the situation where nation states are the 'addressees' of hierarchical rules but recognize that, in reality, other tiers of government as well as private actors are placed in this position.
33. H. Wallace, 'The Institutional Setting: Five Variations on a Theme', in Wallace and Wallace, eds, Policy-making in the European Union, pp. 3-37, at p. 29.
34. It is worth noting that, in policy areas affected by positive integration, the Commission's policy initiation powers (and to a much lesser extent the Parliament's legislative authority) give it resources to become a player in the policy-transfer process. It may articulate its own policy model or institutional arrangements, perhaps drawing on experience in other sectors, and seek to have these form the basis of the transfer. However, this role is played out under governance by negotiation.
35. Although these norms are sometimes honoured in the breach, governance by hierarchy will not generally function without them.
36. T. Börzel, 'Pace-Setting, Foot-Dragging, and Fence-Sitting: Member State Responses to Europeanization', Journal of Common Market Studies, 40 (2002), 193-214, pp. 195-6.
37. George Tsebelis, 'Decision-Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325, p. 289; Geoffrey Garrett and George Tsebelis, 'An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism', International Organization, 50 (1996), 533-60; George Tsebelis and Geoffrey Garrett, 'Legislative Politics in the European Union', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 9-36, p. 14; Mikko Mattila and Jan-Erik Lane, 'Why Unanimity in the Council? A Roll Call Analysis of Council Voting', European Union Politics 2 (2001), 31-52; Jonathan Golub, 'In the Shadow of the Vote? Decision Making in the European Community', International Organization, 43 (1999), 733-64, p. 752.
38. George Tsebelis, 'Decision-Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325, p. 289; Geoffrey Garrett and George Tsebelis, 'An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism', International Organization, 50 (1996), 533-60; George Tsebelis and Geoffrey Garrett, 'Legislative Politics in the European Union', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 9-36, p. 14; Mikko Mattila and Jan-Erik Lane, 'Why Unanimity in the Council? A Roll Call Analysis of Council Voting', European Union Politics 2 (2001), 31-52; Jonathan Golub, 'In the Shadow of the Vote? Decision Making in the European Community', International Organization, 43 (1999), 733-64, p. 752.
39. George Tsebelis, 'Decision-Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325, p. 289; Geoffrey Garrett and George Tsebelis, 'An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism', International Organization, 50 (1996), 533-60; George Tsebelis and Geoffrey Garrett, 'Legislative Politics in the European Union', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 9-36, p. 14; Mikko Mattila and Jan-Erik Lane, 'Why Unanimity in the Council? A Roll Call Analysis of Council Voting', European Union Politics 2 (2001), 31-52; Jonathan Golub, 'In the Shadow of the Vote? Decision Making in the European Community', International Organization, 43 (1999), 733-64, p. 752.
40. George Tsebelis, 'Decision-Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325, p. 289; Geoffrey Garrett and George Tsebelis, 'An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism', International Organization, 50 (1996), 533-60; George Tsebelis and Geoffrey Garrett, 'Legislative Politics in the European Union', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 9-36, p. 14; Mikko Mattila and Jan-Erik Lane, 'Why Unanimity in the Council? A Roll Call Analysis of Council Voting', European Union Politics 2 (2001), 31-52; Jonathan Golub, 'In the Shadow of the Vote? Decision Making in the European Community', International Organization, 43 (1999), 733-64, p. 752.
41. George Tsebelis, 'Decision-Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartism', British Journal of Political Science, 25 (1995), 289-325, p. 289; Geoffrey Garrett and George Tsebelis, 'An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism', International Organization, 50 (1996), 533-60; George Tsebelis and Geoffrey Garrett, 'Legislative Politics in the European Union', European Union Politics, 1 (2000), 9-36, p. 14; Mikko Mattila and Jan-Erik Lane, 'Why Unanimity in the Council? A Roll Call Analysis of Council Voting', European Union Politics 2 (2001), 31-52; Jonathan Golub, 'In the Shadow of the Vote? Decision Making in the European Community', International Organization, 43 (1999), 733-64, p. 752.
42. Adrienne Héritier, 'The Accommodation of Diversity in European Policy-Making and Its Outcomes: Regulatory Policy as a Patchwork', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 149-67, pp. 158-9.
43. Fritz Scharpf, 'The Joint Decision Trap: Lessons from German Federalism and European Integration', Public Administration, 66 (1988), 239-78; Adrienne Héritier, Policy-Making and Diversity in Europe: Escape from Deadlock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 19-20.
44. Fritz Scharpf, 'The Joint Decision Trap: Lessons from German Federalism and European Integration', Public Administration, 66 (1988), 239-78; Adrienne Héritier, Policy-Making and Diversity in Europe: Escape from Deadlock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 19-20.
45. Ole Elström and Christer Jönsson, 'Negotiation in the European Union: Bargaining or Problem-Solving', Journal of European Public Policy, 7, Special Issue (2000), 684-704, p. 688.
46. Scharpf, Games Real Actors Play, p. 211.
47. Rainer Eising, 'Policy Learning in Embedded Negotiations: Explaining EU Electricity Liberalization', International Organization, 56 (2002), 87-122, p. 93.
48. Dermot Hodson and Imelda Maher, 'The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance: The Case of Soft Economic Policy Coordination', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 719-46, pp. 720-1.
49. Joanne Scott and David Trubek, 'Mind the Gap: Law and New Approaches to Governance in the European Union', European Law Journal, 8 (2002), 1-21, p. 8; Hodson and Maher, 'The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance', p. 728.
50. Joanne Scott and David Trubek, 'Mind the Gap: Law and New Approaches to Governance in the European Union', European Law Journal, 8 (2002), 1-21, p. 8; Hodson and Maher, 'The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance', p. 728.
51. Hodson and Maher, 'The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance', p. 726; Caroline de la Porte, 'Is the Open Method of Coordination Appropriate for Organising Activities at the European Level in Sensitive Policy Areas?' European Law Journal, 8 (2002), 38-58, p. 40.
52. Hodson and Maher, 'The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance', p. 726; Caroline de la Porte, 'Is the Open Method of Coordination Appropriate for Organising Activities at the European Level in Sensitive Policy Areas?' European Law Journal, 8 (2002), 38-58, p. 40.
53. Paul J. Di Maggio and Walter W. Powell, 'The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields', American Sociological Review, 48 (1983), 47-60.
54. Frank Vandenbroucke, 'Open Coordination on Pensions and the Future of Europe's Social Model' (paper presented to the 'Towards a New Architecture for Europe's Social Model' Conference, Leuven, 2001, available at www.vandenbroucke.fgov.be.
55. David Trubek and James Mosher, 'New Governance, EU Employment Policy, and the European Social Model' (Working Paper 6/01, Symposium: Mountain or Molehill? A Critical Appraisal of the Commission White Paper on Governance, New York University School of Law, 2001), available at www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/papers/01/-11501.html
56. Case 120/78, Rewe-Zentral AC v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein. We draw here on Armstrong and Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market, pp. 149-50. See also K. Alter and S. Meunier-Aitsahalia, 'Judicial Politics in the European Community: European Integration and the Pathbreaking Cassis de Dijon Decision', Comparative Political Studies, 26 (1994), 535-61.
57. Case 120/78, Rewe-Zentral AC v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein. We draw here on Armstrong and Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market, pp. 149-50. See also K. Alter and S. Meunier-Aitsahalia, 'Judicial Politics in the European Community: European Integration and the Pathbreaking Cassis de Dijon Decision', Comparative Political Studies, 26 (1994), 535-61.
58. Case 120/78, Rewe-Zentral AC v Bundesmonopol für Branntwein. We draw here on Armstrong and Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market, pp. 149-50. See also K. Alter and S. Meunier-Aitsahalia, 'Judicial Politics in the European Community: European Integration and the Pathbreaking Cassis de Dijon Decision', Comparative Political Studies, 26 (1994), 535-61.
59. Alter and Meunier-Aitsahalia, 'Judicial Politics in the European Community'.
60. Joined cases 209-213/84, Ministère Public v. Asjes and Others.
61. See K. Armstrong and S. Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), chap. 7; D. O'Reilly and A. Stone Sweet, 'The Liberalization and European Reregulation of Air Transport', in Sandholtz and Stone Sweet, European Integration and Supranational Governance, pp. 164-87; H. Kassim, 'Air Transport', in H. Kassim and A. Menon, eds, The European Union and National Industrial Policy (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 106-31.
62. See K. Armstrong and S. Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), chap. 7; D. O'Reilly and A. Stone Sweet, 'The Liberalization and European Reregulation of Air Transport', in Sandholtz and Stone Sweet, European Integration and Supranational Governance, pp. 164-87; H. Kassim, 'Air Transport', in H. Kassim and A. Menon, eds, The European Union and National Industrial Policy (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 106-31.
63. See K. Armstrong and S. Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), chap. 7; D. O'Reilly and A. Stone Sweet, 'The Liberalization and European Reregulation of Air Transport', in Sandholtz and Stone Sweet, European Integration and Supranational Governance, pp. 164-87; H. Kassim, 'Air Transport', in H. Kassim and A. Menon, eds, The European Union and National Industrial Policy (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 106-31.
64. R. Cichowski, 'Judicial Rulemaking and the Institutionalization of European Union Sex Equality Policy', in A. Stone Sweet, W. Sandholtz and N. Fligstein, eds, The Institutionalization of Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 113-36.
65. Cichowski, 'Judicial Rulemaking' ; also see the account on the emergence of the Maternity Directive in Armstrong and Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market, chap. 9.
66. Cichowski, 'Judicial Rulemaking' ; also see the account on the emergence of the Maternity Directive in Armstrong and Bulmer, The Governance of the Single European Market, chap. 9.
67. State aid to airlines is not policed by DG IV but by that for transport (formerly DG VII, now DG TREN).
68. P. Le Galès, 'Est maître des lieux celui qui les organise? How Rules Change When National and European Policy Domains Collide', in Stone Sweet, Sandholtz and Fligstein, The Institutionalization of Europe, pp. 137-54, at p. 143.
69. See Le Galès, 'Est maître des lieux ...?', p. 140.
70. For the case of Germany, see Simon Bulmer, David Dolowitz, Peter Humphreys and Stephen Padgett, 'Electricity and Telecommunications: Fit for the European Union?' in K. Dyson and K. Goetz, eds, Germany, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (London: British Academy/Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 251-70.
71. Le Galès, 'Est maître des lieux ...?', p. 140.
72. For the cases, see Le Galès, 'Est maître des lieux ...?', pp. 145-50; for the quote, p. 151.
73. For the cases, see Le Galès, 'Est maître des lieux ...?', pp. 145-50; for the quote, p. 151.
74. M. P. Smith, 'Autonomy by the Rules: The European Commission and the Development of State Aid Policy', Journal of Common Market Studies, 36 (1998), 57-78, p. 57.
75. David Levi-Faur, The Governance of Competition: The Interplay of Technology, Economics, and Politics in European Union Electricity and Telecom Regimes', Journal of Public Policy, 19 (1999), 188-93.
76. A. Héritier et al., Differential Europe: The European Union Impact on National Policymaking (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001).
77. The Article 226 procedure works in three stages. First, the Commission writes an Article 226 letter, setting out its case against the member state. Secondly, it sends a reasoned opinion, which presents the more legal case that would be tabled at the third stage. Thirdly, there is full reference to the ECJ. Not surprisingly the number of full references is smaller than the number of Article 226 letters. As illustration, at 31 December 2001 the Commission had 3,360 cases under examination; 1,669 cases (49.67 per cent) had reached the opening of infringement proceedings; for 934 cases (27.80 per cent) a reasoned opinion had been sent; 347 cases (10.33 per cent) had been referred to the ECJ. Source: http://europa.eu.int/comm/secretariat_general/sgb/droit_com/index_en.htm, accessed 4 February 2003.
78. This principle was established in the 1992 judgment in Francovich and Bonifaci v. Italy (joined cases 6/90 and 9/90).
79. The continuation of the transfer process after transposition raises a wider methodological question; at what point in the policy cycle is a transfer outcome to be evaluated?
80. M. Burch and I. Holliday, 'Institutional Emergence: The Case of the North West Region of England', Regional Politics and Policy, 3 (1993), 29-50.
81. See K. Smith, 'The Use of Political Conditionally in the EU's Relations with Third Countries: How Effective?' European Foreign Affairs Review, 3 (1998), 253-74.
82. Negotiated in 1996, and designed to incorporate Germany's traditional fiscal prudence into euro-zone practice after Stage 3 of EMU, the Stability and Growth Pact was agreed as a resolution at the June 1997 Amsterdam European Council, with legislation following.
83. K. Dyson and K. Featherstone, The Road to Maastricht: Negotiating Economic and Monetary Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), chap. 10.
84. Tanja A. Börzel, 'Pace Setting, Foot Dragging, and Fence Sitting', p. 199.
85. Börzel, 'Pace Setting, Foot Dragging, and Fence Sitting', p. 199.
86. Héritier, 'The Accommodation of Diversity', pp. 162-3.
87. Philippe M. Hildebrand, 'The European Community's Environmental Policy 1957 to "1992": From Incidental Measures to an International Regime?' Environmental Politics, 1 (1993), 20-41, p. 21; Alberta Sbragia, 'Institution-building from Below and Above: The European Community in Global Environmental Polities', in A. Stone Sweet and W. Sandholz, eds, European Integration and Supranational Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 283-303; Albert Weale, 'Environmental Rules and Rule-Making in the European Union', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 594-611; Héritier, Policy-Making and Diversity, p. 52 ; Adrienne Héritier, Christoph Knill and Susan Mingers, Ringing the Changes in Europe: Regulation, Competition and the Transformation of the State: Britain, France and Germany (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1996); David Wilkinson, 'Maastricht and the Environment: The Implications for the EC's Environment Policy of the Treaty on European Union', Journal of Environmental Law, 4 (1992), 221-39.
88. Philippe M. Hildebrand, 'The European Community's Environmental Policy 1957 to "1992": From Incidental Measures to an International Regime?' Environmental Politics, 1 (1993), 20-41, p. 21; Alberta Sbragia, 'Institution-building from Below and Above: The European Community in Global Environmental Polities', in A. Stone Sweet and W. Sandholz, eds, European Integration and Supranational Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 283-303; Albert Weale, 'Environmental Rules and Rule-Making in the European Union', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 594-611; Héritier, Policy-Making and Diversity, p. 52 ; Adrienne Héritier, Christoph Knill and Susan Mingers, Ringing the Changes in Europe: Regulation, Competition and the Transformation of the State: Britain, France and Germany (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1996); David Wilkinson, 'Maastricht and the Environment: The Implications for the EC's Environment Policy of the Treaty on European Union', Journal of Environmental Law, 4 (1992), 221-39.
89. Philippe M. Hildebrand, 'The European Community's Environmental Policy 1957 to "1992": From Incidental Measures to an International Regime?' Environmental Politics, 1 (1993), 20-41, p. 21; Alberta Sbragia, 'Institution-building from Below and Above: The European Community in Global Environmental Polities', in A. Stone Sweet and W. Sandholz, eds, European Integration and Supranational Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 283-303; Albert Weale, 'Environmental Rules and Rule-Making in the European Union', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 594-611; Héritier, Policy-Making and Diversity, p. 52 ; Adrienne Héritier, Christoph Knill and Susan Mingers, Ringing the Changes in Europe: Regulation, Competition and the Transformation of the State: Britain, France and Germany (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1996); David Wilkinson, 'Maastricht and the Environment: The Implications for the EC's Environment Policy of the Treaty on European Union', Journal of Environmental Law, 4 (1992), 221-39.
90. Philippe M. Hildebrand, 'The European Community's Environmental Policy 1957 to "1992": From Incidental Measures to an International Regime?' Environmental Politics, 1 (1993), 20-41, p. 21; Alberta Sbragia, 'Institution-building from Below and Above: The European Community in Global Environmental Polities', in A. Stone Sweet and W. Sandholz, eds, European Integration and Supranational Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 283-303; Albert Weale, 'Environmental Rules and Rule-Making in the European Union', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 594-611; Héritier, Policy-Making and Diversity, p. 52 ; Adrienne Héritier, Christoph Knill and Susan Mingers, Ringing the Changes in Europe: Regulation, Competition and the Transformation of the State: Britain, France and Germany (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1996); David Wilkinson, 'Maastricht and the Environment: The Implications for the EC's Environment Policy of the Treaty on European Union', Journal of Environmental Law, 4 (1992), 221-39.
91. Philippe M. Hildebrand, 'The European Community's Environmental Policy 1957 to "1992": From Incidental Measures to an International Regime?' Environmental Politics, 1 (1993), 20-41, p. 21; Alberta Sbragia, 'Institution-building from Below and Above: The European Community in Global Environmental Polities', in A. Stone Sweet and W. Sandholz, eds, European Integration and Supranational Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 283-303; Albert Weale, 'Environmental Rules and Rule-Making in the European Union', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 594-611; Héritier, Policy-Making and Diversity, p. 52 ; Adrienne Héritier, Christoph Knill and Susan Mingers, Ringing the Changes in Europe: Regulation, Competition and the Transformation of the State: Britain, France and Germany (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1996); David Wilkinson, 'Maastricht and the Environment: The Implications for the EC's Environment Policy of the Treaty on European Union', Journal of Environmental Law, 4 (1992), 221-39.
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120. Monica den Boer, 'Justice and Home Affairs: Cooperation without Integration', in Wallace and Wallace, eds, Policy-Making in the European Union, pp. 395-405; Stephen Stetter, 'Regulating Migration: Authority Delegation in Justice and Home Affairs', Journal of European Public Policy, 1 (2000), 81-101 ; Jörg Monar, 'The Dynamics of Justice and Home Affairs: Laboratories, Driving Factors and Costs', Journal of Common Market Studies, 39 (2001), 752-60.
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123. Stetter, 'Regulating Migration', p. 88.
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132. David M. Trubek and James Mosher, 'New Governance, EU Employment Policy, and the European Social Model' (Symposium: Mountain or Molehill? A Critical Appraisal of the Commission White Paper on Governance, New York University School of Law, Working Paper No. 6/01, 2001, 5.2, available at http://www.jeanmonnetprogramme.org/papers/01/01150.html).
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134. Adnett, 'Modernizing the European Social Model', p. 360; Iain Begg, Jos Berghman, Yves Chassard, Pekka Kosonen, Per Kongshøj Madsen, Manos Matsaganis, David Mayes, Ruud Muffels, Robert Salais and Panos Tsakloglou, Social Exclusion and Social Protection in the European Union: Policy Issues and Proposals for the Future Role of the EU (London: EXSPRO, South Bank University, 2001), p. 30; De la Porte, 'Is the Open Method of Coordination Appropriate ... ?', p. 54.
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146. Financial Times, 27/28 July 2002, p. 7.
147. Caroline de la Porte, Philippe Pochet and Graham Room, 'Social Benchmarking, Policy Making and New Governance in the EU', Journal of European Social Policy, 11 (2001), 291-307, p. 297; Begg et al., Social Exclusion and Social Protection, pp. 4-6.
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152. Hodson and Maher, 'The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance', pp. 739-40.
153. John Peterson and Elizabeth Bomberg, Decision-Making in the European Union (London: Macmillan, 1999).