Colonialism and coffee plantations: Decline of environment and tribals in Madras Presidency during the nineteenth century

Indian Economic and Social History Review

Volumn 41, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 465-488

  Saravanan, Velayutham ^a  

^a Centre for Economic Social Studies   (India)

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EID: 12944258673     PISSN: 00194646     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/001946460404100405     Document Type: Review

References (213)

1. For a detailed review see Velayutham Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 40(4), 2003, pp. 403-47; and Velayutham Saravanan, 'Colonial Agrarian Policy in Tribal Areas of Madras Presidency: 1792-1872', Environment and History (forthcoming).
2. For a detailed review see Velayutham Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 40(4), 2003, pp. 403-47; and Velayutham Saravanan, 'Colonial Agrarian Policy in Tribal Areas of Madras Presidency: 1792-1872', Environment and History (forthcoming).
3. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII(44 & 45), 1983, pp. 1886-92; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 144-57; Marlene Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India: An Unscientific or Unadopted Policy', in Richard H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 669; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', IESHR. Vol. 35(2), pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-47.
4. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII(44 & 45), 1983, pp. 1886-92; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 144-57; Marlene Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India: An Unscientific or Unadopted Policy', in Richard H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 669; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', IESHR. Vol. 35(2), pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-47.
5. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII(44 & 45), 1983, pp. 1886-92; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 144-57; Marlene Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India: An Unscientific or Unadopted Policy', in Richard H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 669; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', IESHR. Vol. 35(2), pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-47.
6. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII(44 & 45), 1983, pp. 1886-92; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 144-57; Marlene Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India: An Unscientific or Unadopted Policy', in Richard H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 669; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', IESHR. Vol. 35(2), pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-47.
7. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII(44 & 45), 1983, pp. 1886-92; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 144-57; Marlene Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India: An Unscientific or Unadopted Policy', in Richard H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 669; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', IESHR. Vol. 35(2), pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-47.
8. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII(44 & 45), 1983, pp. 1886-92; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 144-57; Marlene Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India: An Unscientific or Unadopted Policy', in Richard H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 669; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881', IESHR. Vol. 35(2), pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-47.
9. Richard H. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860, Delhi, 1995, Ch. 8.
10. Ibid., p. 387.
11. Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 147.
12. Madhav Gadgil, Towards an Ecological History of India', EPW, Vol. XX(45, 46 & 47), 1985, p. 1913.
13. Mahesh Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation and Forest Management in the Central Provinces 1850-1930', in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, p. 589.
14. Vandana Shiva, Ecology and the Politics of Survival: Conflicts over Natural Resources in India, New Delhi, 1991, p. 14.
15. Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds. Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48; Sumit Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan period', Studies in History (hereafter SH) (n.s) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91.
16. Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds. Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48; Sumit Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan period', Studies in History (hereafter SH) (n.s) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91.
17. Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds. Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48; Sumit Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan period', Studies in History (hereafter SH) (n.s) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91.
18. Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds. Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48; Sumit Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan period', Studies in History (hereafter SH) (n.s) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91.
19. Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds. Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48; Sumit Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India, 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan period', Studies in History (hereafter SH) (n.s) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91.
20. Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation and Forest Management', p. 589.
21. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence', pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-23; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy in the Shervaroy hills of Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period', Review of Development and Change (hereafter RDC), Vol. 4(2), 1999, pp. 298-317; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947', RDC, Vol. VI(1), 2001, pp. 73-104.
22. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence', pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-23; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy in the Shervaroy hills of Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period', Review of Development and Change (hereafter RDC), Vol. 4(2), 1999, pp. 298-317; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947', RDC, Vol. VI(1), 2001, pp. 73-104.
23. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence', pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-23; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy in the Shervaroy hills of Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period', Review of Development and Change (hereafter RDC), Vol. 4(2), 1999, pp. 298-317; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947', RDC, Vol. VI(1), 2001, pp. 73-104.
24. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence', pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Colonial Commercial Forest Policy and the Tribal Private Forests', pp. 403-23; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy in the Shervaroy hills of Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period', Review of Development and Change (hereafter RDC), Vol. 4(2), 1999, pp. 298-317; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947', RDC, Vol. VI(1), 2001, pp. 73-104.
25. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence', pp. 125-46.
26. David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70; Mahesh Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest: Conservation and Ecology change in India's Central Provinces 1860-1914, Delhi. 1996; Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation", p. 589; Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India', p. 669; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India: Imagining the Past in Present Politics', Comparative Studies in Society and History: An International Quarterly, Vol. 35(1), 1995, p. 9.
27. David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70; Mahesh Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest: Conservation and Ecology change in India's Central Provinces 1860-1914, Delhi. 1996; Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation", p. 589; Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India', p. 669; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India: Imagining the Past in Present Politics', Comparative Studies in Society and History: An International Quarterly, Vol. 35(1), 1995, p. 9.
28. David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70; Mahesh Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest: Conservation and Ecology change in India's Central Provinces 1860-1914, Delhi. 1996; Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation", p. 589; Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India', p. 669; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India: Imagining the Past in Present Politics', Comparative Studies in Society and History: An International Quarterly, Vol. 35(1), 1995, p. 9.
29. David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70; Mahesh Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest: Conservation and Ecology change in India's Central Provinces 1860-1914, Delhi. 1996; Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation", p. 589; Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India', p. 669; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India: Imagining the Past in Present Politics', Comparative Studies in Society and History: An International Quarterly, Vol. 35(1), 1995, p. 9.
30. David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70; Mahesh Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest: Conservation and Ecology change in India's Central Provinces 1860-1914, Delhi. 1996; Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation", p. 589; Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India', p. 669; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India: Imagining the Past in Present Politics', Comparative Studies in Society and History: An International Quarterly, Vol. 35(1), 1995, p. 9.
31. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR. Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
32. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR. Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
33. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR. Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
34. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR. Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
35. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR. Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
36. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR. Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
37. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR. Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
38. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu: Subsistence to Commercialisation 1976-1995', RDC, Vol. 11(1), 1997,p. 159; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Thamizhaga Malaival Makkalin Nila Urimai' (Land Rights of Tribals in Tamil Nadu), Uzhavan Urimai, [Special Issue], 1999, p. 54.
39. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu: Subsistence to Commercialisation 1976-1995', RDC, Vol. 11(1), 1997,p. 159; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Thamizhaga Malaival Makkalin Nila Urimai' (Land Rights of Tribals in Tamil Nadu), Uzhavan Urimai, [Special Issue], 1999, p. 54.
40. Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu', p. 158.
41. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forests, Environmental Negligence', p. 146; Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy', p. 313; Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu', p. 166; Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency', pp. 73-104.
42. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forests, Environmental Negligence', p. 146; Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy', p. 313; Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu', p. 166; Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency', pp. 73-104.
43. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forests, Environmental Negligence', p. 146; Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy', p. 313; Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu', p. 166; Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency', pp. 73-104.
44. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forests, Environmental Negligence', p. 146; Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy', p. 313; Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu', p. 166; Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency', pp. 73-104.
45. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline', pp. 341-70.
46. Saravanan, 'Colonial Agrarian Policy in Tribal Areas'; Saravanan, Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency'.
47. Saravanan, 'Colonial Agrarian Policy in Tribal Areas'; Saravanan, Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency'.
48. Rajanajit Das Gupta, 'From Peasants and Tribesmen to Plantation Workers: Colonial Capitalism, Reproduction of Labour Power and Proletarianisation in North East India. 1850s to 1947', EPW, Vol. 21(4), 1986, p. PE.3.
49. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Genesis of Hill Inhabitants in Tamil Nadu: A Review' (unpublished).
50. V. Kanakasabhai, The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, New Delhi, 1979, p. 48.
51. Even though there are controversies about the period of Sangam literature (approximately three centuries before and after the Christian Era), it is one of the earliest sources of information on tribal people in Tamil Nadu.
52. Natrinai (in Tamil), poem-52, Madras, Kazhaga Pathippu.
53. M. Srinivas Aiyangar, Tamil Studies, New Delhi, 1986, pp. 10-12.
54. Edgar Thurston and K. Rangachari, Caste and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. IV, Delhi, 1909, p. 406.
55. F. Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, Vol. II, London, 1807, p. 197.
56. For example, the Kotas tribes in the Nilgiris are treated as untouchable by Todas.
57. Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, p. 6.
58. F. Cox, A Manual of the North Arcot District, Madras, 1880, p. 212; H.A. Staurt, A Manual of North Arcot District, Madras, 1895, pp. 211-12; F.R. Hamingway, Madras District Gazetteer, Tiruchinopoly, Madras, 1907, p. 124; C.D. Maclean, Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1885; F.J. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Salem District, Vol. I, Part I, Madras, 1918, pp. 152-53; Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, p. 407.
59. F. Cox, A Manual of the North Arcot District, Madras, 1880, p. 212; H.A. Staurt, A Manual of North Arcot District, Madras, 1895, pp. 211-12; F.R. Hamingway, Madras District Gazetteer, Tiruchinopoly, Madras, 1907, p. 124; C.D. Maclean, Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1885; F.J. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Salem District, Vol. I, Part I, Madras, 1918, pp. 152-53; Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, p. 407.
60. F. Cox, A Manual of the North Arcot District, Madras, 1880, p. 212; H.A. Staurt, A Manual of North Arcot District, Madras, 1895, pp. 211-12; F.R. Hamingway, Madras District Gazetteer, Tiruchinopoly, Madras, 1907, p. 124; C.D. Maclean, Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1885; F.J. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Salem District, Vol. I, Part I, Madras, 1918, pp. 152-53; Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, p. 407.
61. F. Cox, A Manual of the North Arcot District, Madras, 1880, p. 212; H.A. Staurt, A Manual of North Arcot District, Madras, 1895, pp. 211-12; F.R. Hamingway, Madras District Gazetteer, Tiruchinopoly, Madras, 1907, p. 124; C.D. Maclean, Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1885; F.J. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Salem District, Vol. I, Part I, Madras, 1918, pp. 152-53; Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, p. 407.
62. F. Cox, A Manual of the North Arcot District, Madras, 1880, p. 212; H.A. Staurt, A Manual of North Arcot District, Madras, 1895, pp. 211-12; F.R. Hamingway, Madras District Gazetteer, Tiruchinopoly, Madras, 1907, p. 124; C.D. Maclean, Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1885; F.J. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Salem District, Vol. I, Part I, Madras, 1918, pp. 152-53; Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, p. 407.
63. F. Cox, A Manual of the North Arcot District, Madras, 1880, p. 212; H.A. Staurt, A Manual of North Arcot District, Madras, 1895, pp. 211-12; F.R. Hamingway, Madras District Gazetteer, Tiruchinopoly, Madras, 1907, p. 124; C.D. Maclean, Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1885; F.J. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Salem District, Vol. I, Part I, Madras, 1918, pp. 152-53; Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, p. 407.
64. Board Petition No. 148 of 1871, Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai (hereafter TNSA), and Letter from the Conservator of Forest to the Government, 25 Oct. 1867, TNSA.
65. Thurston and Rangachari, Caste and Tribes, Vol. IV, p. 409.
66. B.O.R. Ehrenfels, Traces of a Matriarchal Civilization among the Kolli Malaiyalis', Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. IX(2), 1943, p. 75.
67. Velayutham Saravanan, Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Hyderabad, 1994, Ch, 2.
68. A division of the country, or a division of the hills also called nadu.
69. Headman of the estate or hills. He is the chief administrative and judicial officer of the estates or nadus.
70. A subordinate native revenue officer employed in the collection and management of the revenue under the Pattakaran, by whom he is appointed, and to whom he is responsible. All Moopans were controlled by the Pattakaran with the help of the Maniakaran.
71. Headman of the hill village.
72. Board of Revenue (hereafter BOR), Vol. 1769, 23 Sept. 1841, p. 12109.
73. A. Aiyappan, Report on the Socio-Economic Conditions of the Aboriginal Tribes of the Province of Madras, Madras, 1948, p. 143.
74. The head among the Pattakaran of difficult nadus of the hills.
75. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Vol. I, Part. I, p. 154.
76. Aiyappan, Report on the Socio-Economic Conditions, p. 143.
77. Their role was like the traditional police, namely the Taliaris and the Kavalkars in South India.
78. D. Arnold, Police Power and Colonial Rule; Madras 1859-1947, Delhi, 1986, p. 17. See also Captain Alexander Read's General Report on Salem, 1800, TNSA.
79. D. Arnold, Police Power and Colonial Rule; Madras 1859-1947, Delhi, 1986, p. 17. See also Captain Alexander Read's General Report on Salem, 1800, TNSA.
80. BOR, Vol. 1027, 18 July 1825, pp. 6307-38, TNSA.
81. R. Vidyasagar, 'Debt Bondage in South Arcot District: A Case Study of Agricultural Labourers and Handloom Weavers', in Utsa Patnaik and Manjari Dingwaney, eds, Bondage and Slavery in India, Madras, 1985, p. 155.
82. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Vol. I, Part II, p. 154.
83. Baramahal Records (hereafter BR), Section VI, Land Rent, p. 123, TNSA, and Public [Sundries]: Vol. 121, 1792-99, p. 157, TNSA.
84. Baramahal Records (hereafter BR), Section VI, Land Rent, p. 123, TNSA, and Public [Sundries]: Vol. 121, 1792-99, p. 157, TNSA.
85. Richards, Madra: District Gazetteer, Vol. I, Part I, p. 108.
86. Dietrich Brandis, Suggestions Regarding Forest Administration in the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1883, pp. 173-75.
87. Kurunthogai (Tamil), Poem 371.
88. Ibid., Poems 133 and 198.
89. Ibid., Poem 288; Natrinai (Tamil), Poem 222.
90. Ibid., Poem 288; Natrinai (Tamil), Poem 222.
91. Kurunthogai (Tamil), Poem 392.
92. Natrinai (in Tamil) Poem 108.
93. Kurunthogai, Poem 100.
94. Ibid., Poem 392.
95. K.A. Neelakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Geoffrey/Cambridge, 1955, p. 128.
96. Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources', pp. 302-4; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence', pp. 125-46.
97. Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources', pp. 302-4; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence', pp. 125-46.
98. Quoted in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, p. 11.
99. In Tamil, it is known as ponakkadu. Lands are cleared, cultivated for a few years and then abandoned, which results in their being covered with a growth of jungle. In other words, such land in the hill areas is capable of being cultivated after a long interval with particular kinds of grain sown in holes dug with a spade.
100. C.J. Jepma, Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach, London, 1995, pp. 3-4.
101. I b i d.
102. William D. Sunderlin, 'Shifting Cultivation and Deforestation in Indonesia; Steps toward Overcoming Confusion in the Debate', Network Paper 21b, London, Rural Development Forestry Network, 1997, p. 2.
103. I b i d.
104. M.D. Subash Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves and Conflicts in Colonial Forest Policy in Western Ghats', in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, pp. 678-80 and 700; Dennis P. Garrify and Chun K. Lai, 'Innovation in Shifting cultivation in Asia: Indigenous Fallow Management', in http://www.oneworld.org/ileia/newsletters, Sep. 2000, pp. 5-6; Eric Mayer, 'Forests, Chena Cultivation, Plantations and the Colonial State in Ceylon, 1840-1940', in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, p. 797.
105. M.D. Subash Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves and Conflicts in Colonial Forest Policy in Western Ghats', in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, pp. 678-80 and 700; Dennis P. Garrify and Chun K. Lai, 'Innovation in Shifting cultivation in Asia: Indigenous Fallow Management', in http://www.oneworld.org/ileia/newsletters, Sep. 2000, pp. 5-6; Eric Mayer, 'Forests, Chena Cultivation, Plantations and the Colonial State in Ceylon, 1840-1940', in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, p. 797.
106. M.D. Subash Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves and Conflicts in Colonial Forest Policy in Western Ghats', in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, pp. 678-80 and 700; Dennis P. Garrify and Chun K. Lai, 'Innovation in Shifting cultivation in Asia: Indigenous Fallow Management', in http://www.oneworld.org/ileia/newsletters, Sep. 2000, pp. 5-6; Eric Mayer, 'Forests, Chena Cultivation, Plantations and the Colonial State in Ceylon, 1840-1940', in Richard H. Grove, et al., eds, Nature and the Orient, p. 797.
107. Jacques Pouchepadass, 'British Attitudes towards Shifting Cultivation in Colonial South India: A Case Study of South Canara District 1800-1920', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, p. 135; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 152.
108. Jacques Pouchepadass, 'British Attitudes towards Shifting Cultivation in Colonial South India: A Case Study of South Canara District 1800-1920', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, p. 135; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 152.
109. Pouchepadass, 'British Attitudes Towards Shifting Cultivation', p. 148; Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves', p. 688.
110. Pouchepadass, 'British Attitudes Towards Shifting Cultivation', p. 148; Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves', p. 688.
111. Meyer, 'Forests, Chena Cultivation', p. 797; Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves', p. 675; Jepma, Tropical Deforestation, p. 86.
112. Meyer, 'Forests, Chena Cultivation', p. 797; Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves', p. 675; Jepma, Tropical Deforestation, p. 86.
113. Meyer, 'Forests, Chena Cultivation', p. 797; Chandran, 'Shifting Cultivation, Sacred Groves', p. 675; Jepma, Tropical Deforestation, p. 86.
114. BOR, Vol. 1817, pp. 10130-31, TNSA.
115. John Shortt, ed., The Hill Ranges of Southern India, Madras, 1870, p. 41.
116. Ibid., p. 40.
117. BOR, Vol. 1012, p. 1689, TNSA.
118. BOR, Vol. 1886, p. 614, TNSA.
119. H. Le Fanu, A Manual of the Salem District in the Presidency of Madras, Vol. II, Madras, 1883, pp. 21-24; Saravanan, Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency', pp. 73-104.
120. H. Le Fanu, A Manual of the Salem District in the Presidency of Madras, Vol. II, Madras, 1883, pp. 21-24; Saravanan, Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency', pp. 73-104.
121. BR, Section XXI, Miscellaneous, p. 25, TNSA.
122. Land deed or ownership rights to land.
123. BOR, Vol. 2310, p. 16470, TNSA.
124. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, p. 47.
125. Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources', pp. 309-12.
126. BOR, Vol. 1838, p. 16685, TNSA.
127. Letter from Arbuthnot to the Board of Revenue, 23 May 1866, TNSA.
128. Government Order (hereafter G.O.) No. 714, Revenue, 19 Mar. 1900, TNSA.
129. G.O. No. 262, Revenue, 19 Jan. 1871, TNSA.
130. Census of India 1901, Village Statistics, Salem District, Madras, 1902.
131. Sacred place or temple.
132. BOR, Vol. 2091, p. 10017, TNSA.
133. Holders of the land deed.
134. BOR, Vol. 1809, p. 7266, TNSA.
135. One Company rupee was equal to 16 annas or 172 pies.
136. In the Madras Presidency, this was the lowest money measurement, which existed during early nineteenth century. Twelve pies, equal to one anna, and 16 annas or 172 pies was equal to one Company rupee.
137. BOR, Vol. 2135, p. 7348, TNSA.
138. Ibid., p. 7344, TNSA.
139. I b i d.
140. BOR, Vol. 2125, p. 4439, TNSA.
141. BOR, Vol. 2135, p. 7358, TNSA.
142. Village accountant.
143. Land reserved for purposes other than those of cultivation.
144. Land deed or ownership rights of land.
145. BOR, Vol. 2135, p. 7356, TNSA.
146. Ibid., p. 7357, TNSA.
147. Ibid., p. 7347, TNSA.
148. BOR, Vol. 2125, p. 4446, TNSA.
149. Ibid., p. 4447, TNSA.
150. Ibid., p. 4446, TNSA.
151. BOR, Vol. 2135, p. 7345, TNSA.
152. BOR, Vol. 2125, p. 4440, TNSA.
153. Ibid., p. 4441, TNSA.
154. BOR, Vol. 2135, p. 7348, TNSA.
155. BOR, Vol. 2125, p. 4440, TNSA.
156. BOR, Vol. 2135, p. 7349, TNSA.
157. I b i d.
158. In Tamil, the Munsiff is known as Maniakaran. He was a subordinate native revenue officer employed in the collection and management of revenue under the native Pattakkaran, by whom he was appointed, and to whom he was responsible. In other words, he is a kind of head peon who, in conjunction with the heads of villages, superintends collection, cultivation, the reaping and selling of a crop, decides when the revenue has to be paid in kind, and settles the petty disputes of the villages.
159. Petition No. 286, Revenue, 1 Feb. 1900, TNSA.
160. G.O. No. 789 (Misc) Revenue, 19 Mar. 1900, TNSA.
161. A division of the country or province or hill.
162. Spiritual leader.
163. BOR, Vol. 1769, p. 12124, TNSA.
164. BOR, Vol. 1809, pp. 7264-68, TNSA.
165. Ibid., p. 7265, TNSA.
166. A counterpart of lease conversant on the part of the proprietor's or cultivator's document agreeing to the rates of assessment imposed by the government.
167. BOR, Vol. 1769, p. 12129, TNSA.
168. BOR, Vol. 2067, p. 1751, TNSA.
169. Ibid., p. 2755, TNSA.
170. I b i d.
171. BOR, Vol. 1769, pp. 12080-85, TNSA.
172. Ibid., p. 12090, TNSA.
173. See Report of the Commissioners for the Investigation of Alleged Cases of Torture in the Madras Presidency, Chennai, 1855, TNSA.
174. BOR, Vol. 1838, p. 16684, TNSA.
175. BOR, Vol. 1809, p. 7273, TNSA.
176. Office of revenue administration. 133 BOR, Vol. 1769, p. 12126, TNSA.
177. Beriz refers to the total assessment of a village for land revenue.
178. BOR, Vol. 1769, p. 12315, TNSA.
179. During the early nineteenth century, the colonial government followed/experimented with various methods of land revenue settlement. Amani settlement was one of them. This was known as the direct land revenue settlement system or sharing system. In fact, this simply consisted in taking the actual share of the grain by the government officers directly. In short, land and other sources of revenue were held and managed directly by the government.
180. Both were subordinate revenue-officers.
181. BOR, Vol. 1809, p. 7273, TNSA.
182. Inspector/Watcher of crops/villages.
183. BOR, Vol. 1847, p. 1581, TNSA.
184. BOR. Vol. 1809, p. 7278. TNSA.
185. Ibid., p. 7272, TNSA.
186. BOR, Vol. 1760, p. 8090, TNSA.
187. BOR, Vol. 1769, pp. 12111-15, TNSA.
188. Ibid., pp. 12115-19, TNSA.
189. Ibid., pp. 12105-11. TNSA.
190. Ibid., pp. 12103-23, TNSA.
191. Ibid., p. 12099, TNSA.
192. I b i d.
193. BOR, Vol. 1809, p. 7268, TNSA.
194. BOR, Vol. 1769, p. 12127, TNSA.
195. BOR, Vol. 1809, p. 7269, TNSA.
196. BOR, Vol. 1817, p. 10130-31, TNSA.
197. BOR, Vol. 1769, p. 12096, TNSA.
198. 'In times prior to colonial rule the whole of the Pariah community, without exception, were slaves of the superior castes', Census of India 1871, Census of Madras Presidency - A Report, Vol. I, Madras, 1874, p. 169.
199. Census of India 1871, Census Statement of Population of 1871, Salem District, Madras.
200. Shortt, The Hill Ranges, Part. II, p. 7.
201. Board Proceedings (hereafter BP) No. 117, Misc., Chief Conservator of Forests, 5 Feb. 1892, TNSA.
202. G.O. No. 1505 [Misc], Revenue, 29 Sept. 1925, TNSA.
203. BOR, Vol. 1537, 10 Nov. 1836, pp. 18133-36.
204. Report on the Census of the Madras Presidency 1871, Vol. 1, Madras, 1874, p. 176.
205. E.W. Wilkins, 'The Shervaroy Hills', Compiled by Somerset Playne, South India, London, 1914-15, p. 407.
206. D. Hamilton, Notes on the Shervaroy Hills, Madras, 1862, p. 6.
207. Shortt, The Hill Ranges, p. 42.
208. S. Srinivasa Raghavaiyangar, Memorandum on the Progress of the Madras Presidency during the Last Forty Years of British Administration, Madras, 1893, Appendix-CC.
209. G.O. No. 605, Revenue, 30 June 1905, p. 13, TNSA.
210. M. Atchi Reddy,Trends in the Agricultural Wages in some South Indian Districts: 1800-1980', Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. XXVIII(4), 1986, pp. 343-49. Also see Dharma Kumar, Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labour in the Madras Presidency during the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1965, p. 163.
211. M. Atchi Reddy,Trends in the Agricultural Wages in some South Indian Districts: 1800-1980', Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. XXVIII(4), 1986, pp. 343-49. Also see Dharma Kumar, Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labour in the Madras Presidency during the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1965, p. 163.
212. Saravanan, 'Colonial Policy and Tribal Welfare Measures in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947' (unpublished); Velayutham Saravanan, Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu.
213. Saravanan, 'Colonial Policy and Tribal Welfare Measures in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947' (unpublished); Velayutham Saravanan, Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu.