Colonial commercial forest policy and tribal private forests in Madras Presidency: 1792-1881

Indian Economic and Social History Review

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 403-423

  Saravanan, Velayutham ^a  

^a Centre for Economics and Social Studies   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2442702965     PISSN: 00194646     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/001946460304000402     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India: Imaging the Past in Present Politics', Comparative Studies in Society and History: An International Quarterly, Vol. 35(1), 1995, p. 5.
2. Ibid., p. 6.
3. Ibid., p. 7.
4. E.P. Stebbing, The Forests of India, Vol. I, New Delhi, 1982, p. 34.
5. I b i d.
6. Ramachandra Guha, 'Writing Environmental History in India', Studies in History (hereafter SH), n.s., Vol. 9(1), 1993, p. 122.
7. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII (44 and 45), 1983, pp. 1886 and 1892; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 148-57.
8. Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India: A Historical Analysis', Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), Vol. XVIII (44 and 45), 1983, pp. 1886 and 1892; Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India', Past and Present, No. 122, 1989, pp. 148-57.
9. Marlene Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India: An Unscientific or Unadopted Policy', in Richar H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 669.
10. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', p. 1887; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 144; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal Rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1882', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 35(2), 1998, pp. 125-46; Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Pastoralists in a Colonial World', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 49-85; Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian Society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48.
11. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', p. 1887; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 144; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal Rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1882', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 35(2), 1998, pp. 125-46; Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Pastoralists in a Colonial World', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 49-85; Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian Society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48.
12. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', p. 1887; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 144; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal Rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1882', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 35(2), 1998, pp. 125-46; Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Pastoralists in a Colonial World', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 49-85; Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian Society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48.
13. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', p. 1887; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 144; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal Rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1882', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 35(2), 1998, pp. 125-46; Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Pastoralists in a Colonial World', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 49-85; Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian Society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48.
14. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', p. 1887; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 144; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal Rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1882', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 35(2), 1998, pp. 125-46; Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Pastoralists in a Colonial World', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 49-85; Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian Society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48.
15. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', p. 1887; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 144; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Western Himalayas, Delhi, 1989, p. 185; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence and Alienation of Tribal Rights in Madras Presidency: 1792-1882', Indian Economic and Social History Review (hereafter IESHR), Vol. 35(2), 1998, pp. 125-46; Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Pastoralists in a Colonial World', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 49-85; Chetan Singh, 'Forests, Pastoralists and Agrarian Society in Mughal India', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha, eds, Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia, Delhi, 1995, pp. 21-48.
16. Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 147.
17. Guha, The Unquiet Woods, p. 29; see also Satpal Sangwan, 'Making of a Popular Debate: The Indian Forester and the Emerging Agenda of State Forestry in India, 1878-1904', IESHR, Vol. 36(2), 1999, pp. 189 and 196.
18. Guha, The Unquiet Woods, p. 29; see also Satpal Sangwan, 'Making of a Popular Debate: The Indian Forester and the Emerging Agenda of State Forestry in India, 1878-1904', IESHR, Vol. 36(2), 1999, pp. 189 and 196.
19. Felix Patel, The Sacrifice of Human Being: British Rule and the Konds of Orissa, Delhi, 1995, pp. 28-29.
20. Richard H. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860, Delhi, 1995, Ch. 8.
21. Ibid., p. 387.
22. I b i d.
23. Ibid., p. 427.
24. Madhav Gadgil, 'Towards an Ecological History of India', EPW, Vol. XX (45, 46 and 47), 1985, p. 1913; Mahesh Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation and Forest Management in the Central Provinces 1850-1930', in Richar H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 589; Vandana Shiva, Ecology and the Politics of Survival: Conflicts over Natural Resources in India, New Delhi, 1991, pp. 14-16.
25. Madhav Gadgil, 'Towards an Ecological History of India', EPW, Vol. XX (45, 46 and 47), 1985, p. 1913; Mahesh Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation and Forest Management in the Central Provinces 1850-1930', in Richar H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 589; Vandana Shiva, Ecology and the Politics of Survival: Conflicts over Natural Resources in India, New Delhi, 1991, pp. 14-16.
26. Madhav Gadgil, 'Towards an Ecological History of India', EPW, Vol. XX (45, 46 and 47), 1985, p. 1913; Mahesh Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation and Forest Management in the Central Provinces 1850-1930', in Richar H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 589; Vandana Shiva, Ecology and the Politics of Survival: Conflicts over Natural Resources in India, New Delhi, 1991, pp. 14-16.
27. Shiva, Ecology and the Politics of Survival, p. 78.
28. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy in the Shervaroy Hills of Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period', Review of Development and Change (hereafter RDC), Vol. 4(2), 1999, pp. 298-317; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest', pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947', RDC, Vol. VI(1), 2001, pp. 73-104.
29. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy in the Shervaroy Hills of Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period', Review of Development and Change (hereafter RDC), Vol. 4(2), 1999, pp. 298-317; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest', pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947', RDC, Vol. VI(1), 2001, pp. 73-104.
30. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Commercial Crops, Alienation of Common Property Resources and Change in Tribal Economy in the Shervaroy Hills of Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period', Review of Development and Change (hereafter RDC), Vol. 4(2), 1999, pp. 298-317; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest', pp. 125-46; Saravanan, 'Tribal Land Alienation in Madras Presidency during the Colonial Period: 1792-1947', RDC, Vol. VI(1), 2001, pp. 73-104.
31. Ajay Skaria, 'Timber Conservancy, Desiccationism and Scientific Forestry: The Dangs 1840s-1920s', in Richar H. Grove, Satpal Sangwan and Vinita Damodaran, eds, Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi, 1998, p. 597.
32. Sumir Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the Commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-Colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India. 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan Period', in SH (n.s.) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91; David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70.
33. Sumir Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the Commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-Colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India. 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan Period', in SH (n.s.) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91; David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70.
34. Sumir Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the Commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-Colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India. 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan Period', in SH (n.s.) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91; David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70.
35. Sumir Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the Commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-Colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India. 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan Period', in SH (n.s.) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91; David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70.
36. Sumir Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires: The Kandesh Bhills, c. 1700-1850', IESHR, Vol. 33(2), 1996, pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Claims on the Commons: Political Power and Natural Resources in Pre-Colonial India', IESHR, Vol. 39(2&3), 2002, pp. 181-96; Sumit Guha, Environment and Ethnicity in India. 1200-1991, Cambridge, 1999, Ch. 5; Aloka Parasher-Sen, 'Of Tribes, Hunters and Barbarians: Forest dwellers in the Mauryan Period', in SH (n.s.) Vol. 14(2), 1998, pp. 173-91; David Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline: The Central Provinces, 1861-1920', IESHR, Vol. 28(4), 1991, pp. 341-70.
37. Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation and Forest Management', p. 589.
38. Mahesh Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest: Conservation and Ecology Change in India's Central Provinces 1860-1914, Delhi, 1996; Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation', p. 589.
39. Mahesh Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest: Conservation and Ecology Change in India's Central Provinces 1860-1914, Delhi, 1996; Rangarajan, 'Protection, Desiccation', p. 589.
40. Buchy, 'British Colonial Forest Policy in South India', p. 669.
41. K. Sivaramakrishnan, Modern Forests: Statemaking and Environmental Change in Colonial Eastern India, Delhi, 1999.
42. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India', p. 7.
43. Ajay Skaria, Hybrid Histories: Forests, Frontiers and Wildness in Western India, Delhi, 1999.
44. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Colonialism and Forestry in India', p. 9.
45. Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest', pp. 125-46.
46. Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Introduction', SH, Vol. 14(2), 1998, p. 165; Arun Agrawal and K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Introduction: Agrarian Environs', in Arun Agrawal and K. Sivaramakrishnan, eds, Social Nature: Resources, Representations, and Rule in India, New Delhi, 2001, p. 4; Mahesh Rangarajan, 'Polity, Ecology and Landscape: New Writings on South Asia's Past', SH, (n.s.), Vol. 18(1), 2002, p. 138.
47. Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Introduction', SH, Vol. 14(2), 1998, p. 165; Arun Agrawal and K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Introduction: Agrarian Environs', in Arun Agrawal and K. Sivaramakrishnan, eds, Social Nature: Resources, Representations, and Rule in India, New Delhi, 2001, p. 4; Mahesh Rangarajan, 'Polity, Ecology and Landscape: New Writings on South Asia's Past', SH, (n.s.), Vol. 18(1), 2002, p. 138.
48. Neeladri Bhattacharya, 'Introduction', SH, Vol. 14(2), 1998, p. 165; Arun Agrawal and K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Introduction: Agrarian Environs', in Arun Agrawal and K. Sivaramakrishnan, eds, Social Nature: Resources, Representations, and Rule in India, New Delhi, 2001, p. 4; Mahesh Rangarajan, 'Polity, Ecology and Landscape: New Writings on South Asia's Past', SH, (n.s.), Vol. 18(1), 2002, p. 138.
49. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Colonial Agrarian Policy in Tribal Areas of Madras Presidency: 1792-1872', Environment and History (forthcoming).
50. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline'. pp. 341-370; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, Centre for Development Studies, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest, 1996; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR, Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
51. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline'. pp. 341-370; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, Centre for Development Studies, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest, 1996; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR, Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
52. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline'. pp. 341-370; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, Centre for Development Studies, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest, 1996; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR, Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
53. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline'. pp. 341-370; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, Centre for Development Studies, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest, 1996; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR, Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
54. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline'. pp. 341-370; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, Centre for Development Studies, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest, 1996; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR, Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
55. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline'. pp. 341-370; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, Centre for Development Studies, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest, 1996; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR, Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
56. Baker, 'State Polity, the Market Economy, and Tribal Decline'. pp. 341-370; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'British Imperialism and Forest Zones of Anomaly in Bengal, 1767-1833', IESHR, Vol. 33(3), 1999, pp. 243-82; Guha, 'Forest Politics and Agrarian Empires', pp. 133-53; Sumit Guha, 'Kings, Commoners and Commons: Environment in Western India 1600-1900', Working Paper, No. XI, Calcutta, Centre for Development Studies, 1996; Ramachandra Guha, 'Forestry and Social Protest in British Kumaon, c. 1893-1921', in Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies IV: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, 1985, pp. 55-100; Rangarajan, Fencing the Forest, 1996; Richard Tucker, 'Forest Management and Imperial Politics: Dhana District, Bombay, 1823-1887', IESHR, Vol. 26(3), 1979, pp. 273-300.
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63. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects: Midnapore, 1830s-1960s', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economy for India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 78; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Conservation and Production in Private Forests: Bengal, 1864-1914', SH, Vol. 14(2), n.s. 1998, pp. 237-64; Sumir Guha, 'Communities, Kings and Woodlands: Historical Reflections on Joint Forest Management', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economyfor India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 60; David Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest: The Dangs 1830-1992', in Mark Poffenbeger and Betsy McGean, eds, Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India, Delhi, 1996, pp. 101-31; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad, 1994; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'.
64. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects: Midnapore, 1830s-1960s', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economy for India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 78; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Conservation and Production in Private Forests: Bengal, 1864-1914', SH, Vol. 14(2), n.s. 1998, pp. 237-64; Sumir Guha, 'Communities, Kings and Woodlands: Historical Reflections on Joint Forest Management', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economyfor India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 60; David Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest: The Dangs 1830-1992', in Mark Poffenbeger and Betsy McGean, eds, Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India, Delhi, 1996, pp. 101-31; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad, 1994; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'.
65. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects: Midnapore, 1830s-1960s', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economy for India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 78; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Conservation and Production in Private Forests: Bengal, 1864-1914', SH, Vol. 14(2), n.s. 1998, pp. 237-64; Sumir Guha, 'Communities, Kings and Woodlands: Historical Reflections on Joint Forest Management', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economyfor India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 60; David Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest: The Dangs 1830-1992', in Mark Poffenbeger and Betsy McGean, eds, Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India, Delhi, 1996, pp. 101-31; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad, 1994; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'.
66. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects: Midnapore, 1830s-1960s', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economy for India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 78; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Conservation and Production in Private Forests: Bengal, 1864-1914', SH, Vol. 14(2), n.s. 1998, pp. 237-64; Sumir Guha, 'Communities, Kings and Woodlands: Historical Reflections on Joint Forest Management', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economyfor India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 60; David Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest: The Dangs 1830-1992', in Mark Poffenbeger and Betsy McGean, eds, Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India, Delhi, 1996, pp. 101-31; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad, 1994; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'.
67. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects: Midnapore, 1830s-1960s', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economy for India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 78; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Conservation and Production in Private Forests: Bengal, 1864-1914', SH, Vol. 14(2), n.s. 1998, pp. 237-64; Sumir Guha, 'Communities, Kings and Woodlands: Historical Reflections on Joint Forest Management', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economyfor India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 60; David Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest: The Dangs 1830-1992', in Mark Poffenbeger and Betsy McGean, eds, Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India, Delhi, 1996, pp. 101-31; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad, 1994; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'.
68. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects: Midnapore, 1830s-1960s', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economy for India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 78; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Conservation and Production in Private Forests: Bengal, 1864-1914', SH, Vol. 14(2), n.s. 1998, pp. 237-64; Sumir Guha, 'Communities, Kings and Woodlands: Historical Reflections on Joint Forest Management', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economyfor India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 60; David Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest: The Dangs 1830-1992', in Mark Poffenbeger and Betsy McGean, eds, Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India, Delhi, 1996, pp. 101-31; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad, 1994; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'.
69. K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects: Midnapore, 1830s-1960s', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economy for India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 78; K. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Conservation and Production in Private Forests: Bengal, 1864-1914', SH, Vol. 14(2), n.s. 1998, pp. 237-64; Sumir Guha, 'Communities, Kings and Woodlands: Historical Reflections on Joint Forest Management', in Roger Jeffery and Nandini Sundar, eds, A New Moral Economyfor India's Forests: Discourse of Community and Participation, New Delhi, 1999, p. 60; David Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest: The Dangs 1830-1992', in Mark Poffenbeger and Betsy McGean, eds, Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India, Delhi, 1996, pp. 101-31; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Velayutham Saravanan, 'Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu since the Colonial Rule 1792-1991', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Hyderabad, 1994; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'.
70. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects', pp. 78-84; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'; Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest'.
71. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects', pp. 78-84; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'; Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest'.
72. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects', pp. 78-84; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'; Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest'.
73. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects', pp. 78-84; Skaria, Hybrid Histories; Saravanan, 'Commercialisation of Forest, Environmental Negligence'; Hardiman, 'Farming in the Forest'.
74. Sivaramakrishnan, 'Landlords, Regional Development and National Forest Projects', p 83.
75. Ibid., pp. 83-84.
76. A tax on pasturage.
77. Proceedings of the Board of Revenue (hereafter PBR), No. 3284, 5 August 1871, Tamil Nadu State Archives, Chennai (hereafter TNSA).
78. Dietrich Brandis, Suggestions regarding Forest Administration in the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1883, p. 20.
79. I b i d.
80. The details of occupied and unoccupied lands for the tributary states, i.e., Sandur, Banganapalli and Puducotta and the districts of Malabar, Nilgiris and South Canara were not available.
81. Brandis, Suggestions regarding Forest Administration, p. 172.
82. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', pp. 1883-84; Guha, 'An Early Environmental Debate', p. 66; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 145; Guha, The Unquiet Woods, p. 37; Gadgil and Guha, The Fissured Land, p. 120.
83. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', pp. 1883-84; Guha, 'An Early Environmental Debate', p. 66; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 145; Guha, The Unquiet Woods, p. 37; Gadgil and Guha, The Fissured Land, p. 120.
84. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', pp. 1883-84; Guha, 'An Early Environmental Debate', p. 66; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 145; Guha, The Unquiet Woods, p. 37; Gadgil and Guha, The Fissured Land, p. 120.
85. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', pp. 1883-84; Guha, 'An Early Environmental Debate', p. 66; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 145; Guha, The Unquiet Woods, p. 37; Gadgil and Guha, The Fissured Land, p. 120.
86. Guha, 'Forestry in British and Post-British India', pp. 1883-84; Guha, 'An Early Environmental Debate', p. 66; Guha and Gadgil, 'State Forestry and Social Conflict', p. 145; Guha, The Unquiet Woods, p. 37; Gadgil and Guha, The Fissured Land, p. 120.
87. I b i d.
88. Brandis, Suggestions regarding Forest Administration, p. 40.
89. Owner of the Mitta.
90. Brandis, Suggestions regarding Forest Administration, p. 175.
91. Ibid., pp. 173-75.
92. A tenure common under the Muslim government, in which the public revenues of a given tract of land were made over to a servant of the state, together with the power requisite to enable him to collect and appropriate such revenue, and administer the general government of the district/hills.
93. F.J. Richards, Madras District Gazetteers, Salem, Vol. I, Part II, Madras, 1918, p. 299.
94. Edgar Thurston and K. Rangachari, Castes and Tribes in Southern India, Delhi, 1909, p. 406.
95. Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, London, 1807, p. 197.
96. Saravanan, Economic Transformation of Tribals in Tamil Nadu, Ch. 2.
97. Baramahal Records, Section III, Inhabitants, TNSA (year is not mentioned).
98. Collector's letter to the Board of Revenue, dated 31 Oct. 1867, TNSA.
99. The earliest records in Salem and Baramahal districts consist of 22 sections. These records give detailed information about Salem and Baramahal districts during the pre-colonial period.
100. Baramahal Records (n.d.), Inhabitants, p. 123, TNSA.
101. A. Aiyappan, Report on the Socio-Economic Conditions of the Aboriginal Tribes of the Province of Madras, Madras, 1948, p. 140.
102. Census of India 1901, Report, Madras, 1902, p. 166.
103. Integrated Tribal Development Project Report, Kalrayan Hills, 1976-77, pp. 3-4.
104. A tenure common under the Muslim government, in which the public revenue of a given tract of land was made over to a servant of the state. The Kalrayan hills were administered by the Jagir.
105. A division of the country. A division of the hills also called a nadu.
106. The headman of the estate or hills. He is the chief administrative and judicial officer of the estates or nadus.
107. A subordinate native revenue officer employed in the collection and management of the revenue under the Pattakaran, by whom he is appointed, and to whom he is responsible. All Moopans were controlled by the Pattakaran with the help of Maniakaran.
108. The headman of the hill village.
109. Aiyappan, Report on the Socio-economic Conditions, p. 143.
110. Board of Revenue (hereafter BOR), Vol. 1769, 23 Sept. 1841, p. 12109, TNSA.
111. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, Vol. I, P. II, p. 154.
112. Their role is like the traditional police, namely the Taliaris and the Kavalkars in south India.
113. Board Petition, No. 148 of 1871, TNSA.
114. R.K. Puckle [epitomised and annotated], Colonel Read's Report on the Original Settlement of Salem in 1791-1796, Salem, 1868, p. 13.
115. Board Petition, No. 148 of 1871, TNSA.
116. Richards, Madras District Gazetteers, Salem, Vol. I, Part I, p. 301.
117. Government Order (hereafter G.O.) No. 1028, Revenue, 10 June 1871, TNSA.
118. A money measurement prevailed in the Madras Presidency during the early colonial period. One Star Pagodas was equal to 45 fanams or 3,600 cash.
119. Eighty cash equal to 1 fanam; 45 fanams equal to one Star Pagodas.
120. Baramahal Records (n.d.), Imposts, Chennai, p. 44, TNSA.
121. Letter from G.J. Longly, Collector of Salem to the Secretary to the Board of Revenue (hereafter BOR), dated 31 Oct. 1871, No. 3146, Salem, TNSA.
122. Colonel Alexander Read, General Report on Salem, 1800, para. 247, TNSA.
123. This is a settlement of the amount of revenue assessed upon an estate, a village; a statement exhibiting the particulars of the public revenue; its amount, and how it is assessed. In other words, annual settlement of revenue with the cultivators or ryotwary settlement.
124. A Collection of Papers relating to the Inam Settlement in the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1948, pp. 240-47.
125. Board Petition, No. 148 of 1871, TNSA.
126. It shows that the earlier practices of widow remarriage, even before disposing the corpse had disappeared in the hill areas of Salem district at the time of the colonial intervention.
127. The duty of the village watch.
128. Richards, Madras District Gazetteer, 1918, Vol. I, Part II, p. 302.
129. I b i d.
130. G.O. No. 654, Revenue, 13 May 1900, TNSA.
131. BOR, Nos 63-64, 4 Feb. 1875, TNSA.
132. BOR, No. 2191, 1871, 3932, TNSA.
133. BOR, Nos 63-64, 4 Feb. 1875, TNSA.
134. G.O. No. 1028, Revenue, 10 June 1871, TNSA.
135. G.O. No. 185, Revenue, 30 Jan. 1872, TNSA.
136. Velayutham Saravanan, 'Tribal Revolts in India with reference to Salem and Baramahal Districts of Madras Presidency during the late 18th Century', Artha Vijnana, Vol. XLI (1), 1999, pp. 67-81.
137. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 1 Sept. 1968, in G.O. No. 2821, Revenue, 11 Nov. 1868, TNSA.
138. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 12 Mar. 1873, in G.O. No. 548, Revenue, 29 May 1873, TNSA.
139. G.O. No. 2977, Revenue, 14 Dec. 1867, TNSA.
140. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 21 Apr. 1869, in G.O. No. 2942, 10 Nov. 1869, TNSA.
141. G.O. No. 2826, Revenue (Press), 11 Nov. 1869, TNSA.
142. Letter from the Acting Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 26 Apr. 1880, in PBR, 13 May 1880, TNSA.
143. G.O. No. 2166, Revenue, 14 Aug. 1868, TNSA.
144. A dry grains measurement. One Kandagam is equal to 40 bullas or Puddies or 7,248 cubical inches.
145. G.O. No. 2942, Revenue, 10 Nov. 1869, TNSA.
146. I b i d.
147. Revenue, Nos 172-74, 22 Nov. 1872, TNSA.
148. G.O. No. 548, Revenue, 29 May 1873, TNSA.
149. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the Officiating Inspector of Forests, Salem, dated 7 Oct. 1872, in G.O. No. 1609, Revenue, 22 Nov. 1872, TNSA.
150. G.O. No. 548, Revenue, 29 May 1873, TNSA.
151. I b i d.
152. G.O. No. 77, Revenue (Press), 14 Jan. 1875, TNSA.
153. G.O. No. 389, Revenue, 9 Mar. 1875, TNSA.
154. Ponakkadu means the lands cleared, cultivated for a few years and abandoned, and covered with a fresh growth of jungle. In other words, a land in the hill areas capable of cultivation after long intervals with particular kinds of grain sown in holes dug with a spade.
155. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 16 Nov. 1800, in PBR No. 1791, 24 Nov. 1880, TNSA.
156. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 20 Oct. 1880, in G.O. No. 150, Revenue, 18 Jan. 1881, TNSA.
157. I b i d.
158. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 16 Nov. 1880, in PBR No. 1791, 24 Nov. 1880, TNSA.
159. A forest product. It is used for dyeing purposes.
160. A division of the country or province or hills.
161. Letter from the Acting Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 28 June 1880, in PBR No. 919, 7 July 1880, TNSA.
162. PBR. No. 1015, 3 Mar. 1877, TNSA.
163. Letter from the Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 20 Oct. 1877, in PBR No. 4895, 1 Nov. 1877, TNSA.
164. I b i d.
165. I b i d.
166. I b i d.
167. Letter from the Acting Collector, Salem to the BOR, dated 26 Apr. 1880, in PBR No. 654, 15 May 1880, TNSA.