Portrayal of men and women in U.S. Spanish-language television commercials

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 77, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 128-142

  Fullerton, Jami A ^a   Kendrick, Alice ^b  

^a OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b SOUTHERN METHODIST UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1242318183     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900007700110     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. U.S. Census Bureau web site, http://www.census.gov
2. Sabrina Goodson and Mary Alice Shaver, "Hispanic Marketing: National Advertiser Spending Patterns and Media Choices," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 191-98.
3. Paul Herbig and Rama Yelkur, "Differences Between Hispanic and Anglo Consumer Expectations," Management Decision 35 (January-February 1997): 125-28.
4. John Kirkpatrick, "Muy grande market," Dallas Morning News, 30 December 1997, sec. D, p. 1.
5. For more information on Telemundo and Univision, see Federico A. Subervi-Velez et al., "Mass Communication and Hispanics" in Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States: Sociology (1994), ed. F. Padilla (Houston, TX: Arte Publico Press, 1994): 304-357.
6. George Gerbner, "Cultivation Analysis: An Overview," Mass Communication and Society 1 (summer 1998): 175-94.
7. Sue Lafky, Margaret Duffy, Mary Steinmaus, and Dan Berkowitz, Looking Through Gendered Lenses: Female Stereotyping in Advertisements and Gender Role Expectations," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (summer 1996): 379-88.
8. Mary C. Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising: A Comparison of Television Advertisements in Australia, Mexico and the United States," Journal of Marketing 52 (April 1988): 75-85.
9. Isabel M. Valdes and Marta H. Seone, Hispanic Market Handbook (Detroit, MI: Gale Research, Inc., 1995).
10. Valdes and Seone, Hispanic Market Handbook, 257.
11. Federico A. Subervi-Velez, "The Mass Media and Ethnic Assimilation and Pluralism: A Review and Research Proposal with Special Focus on Hispanics," Communication Research 13 (January 1986): 71-96; Stephen Riggins, Ethnic Minority Media (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992).
12. Federico A. Subervi-Velez, "The Mass Media and Ethnic Assimilation and Pluralism: A Review and Research Proposal with Special Focus on Hispanics," Communication Research 13 (January 1986): 71-96; Stephen Riggins, Ethnic Minority Media (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992).
13. Valdes and Seone, Hispanic Market Handbook.
14. Valdes and Seone, Hispanic Market Handbook.
15. Daniel Bretl and Joanne Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials: A Recent Content Analysis and Trends over 15 Years," Sex Roles 18 (1988): 595-609; Joseph R. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials," Journal of Broadcasting 16 (summer 1972): 59-265; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Leslie Z. McArthur and Beth G. Resko, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in American Television Commercials," Journal of Social Psychology 97 (1975): 209-220; Kenneth C. Schneider and Sharon Barich Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles in Television Commercials," Journal of Marketing 43 (summer 1979): 79-84; and Arthur Jay Silverstein and Rebecca Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising," Federal Communications Bar Journal 27 (1974): 71-93.
16. Daniel Bretl and Joanne Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials: A Recent Content Analysis and Trends over 15 Years," Sex Roles 18 (1988): 595-609; Joseph R. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials," Journal of Broadcasting 16 (summer 1972): 59-265; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Leslie Z. McArthur and Beth G. Resko, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in American Television Commercials," Journal of Social Psychology 97 (1975): 209-220; Kenneth C. Schneider and Sharon Barich Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles in Television Commercials," Journal of Marketing 43 (summer 1979): 79-84; and Arthur Jay Silverstein and Rebecca Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising," Federal Communications Bar Journal 27 (1974): 71-93.
17. Daniel Bretl and Joanne Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials: A Recent Content Analysis and Trends over 15 Years," Sex Roles 18 (1988): 595-609; Joseph R. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials," Journal of Broadcasting 16 (summer 1972): 59-265; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Leslie Z. McArthur and Beth G. Resko, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in American Television Commercials," Journal of Social Psychology 97 (1975): 209-220; Kenneth C. Schneider and Sharon Barich Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles in Television Commercials," Journal of Marketing 43 (summer 1979): 79-84; and Arthur Jay Silverstein and Rebecca Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising," Federal Communications Bar Journal 27 (1974): 71-93.
18. Daniel Bretl and Joanne Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials: A Recent Content Analysis and Trends over 15 Years," Sex Roles 18 (1988): 595-609; Joseph R. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials," Journal of Broadcasting 16 (summer 1972): 59-265; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Leslie Z. McArthur and Beth G. Resko, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in American Television Commercials," Journal of Social Psychology 97 (1975): 209-220; Kenneth C. Schneider and Sharon Barich Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles in Television Commercials," Journal of Marketing 43 (summer 1979): 79-84; and Arthur Jay Silverstein and Rebecca Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising," Federal Communications Bar Journal 27 (1974): 71-93.
19. Daniel Bretl and Joanne Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials: A Recent Content Analysis and Trends over 15 Years," Sex Roles 18 (1988): 595-609; Joseph R. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials," Journal of Broadcasting 16 (summer 1972): 59-265; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Leslie Z. McArthur and Beth G. Resko, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in American Television Commercials," Journal of Social Psychology 97 (1975): 209-220; Kenneth C. Schneider and Sharon Barich Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles in Television Commercials," Journal of Marketing 43 (summer 1979): 79-84; and Arthur Jay Silverstein and Rebecca Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising," Federal Communications Bar Journal 27 (1974): 71-93.
20. Daniel Bretl and Joanne Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials: A Recent Content Analysis and Trends over 15 Years," Sex Roles 18 (1988): 595-609; Joseph R. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials," Journal of Broadcasting 16 (summer 1972): 59-265; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Leslie Z. McArthur and Beth G. Resko, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in American Television Commercials," Journal of Social Psychology 97 (1975): 209-220; Kenneth C. Schneider and Sharon Barich Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles in Television Commercials," Journal of Marketing 43 (summer 1979): 79-84; and Arthur Jay Silverstein and Rebecca Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising," Federal Communications Bar Journal 27 (1974): 71-93.
21. Alice E. Courtney and Thomas W. Whipple, Sex Stereotyping in Advertising (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983).
22. McArthur and Resko, "Portrayal of Men and Women."
23. Stephen R. Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis," Sex Roles 26 (1992): 197-211.
24. Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
25. Daniel Riffe, Patricia C. Place, and Charles M. Mayo, "Game Time, Soap Time and Prime Time TV Ads: Treatment of Women in Sunday Football and Rest-of-Week Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 70 (summer 1993): 437-46.
26. Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
27. Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
28. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
29. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
30. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
31. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
32. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
33. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
34. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
35. Adrian Furnham and Nadine Bitar, "The Stereotyped Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 297-311; Adrian Furnham and Virginia Voli, "Gender Stereotypes in Italian Television Advertisements," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 175-85; Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising," 75-85; Mary W. Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials," Sex Roles 34 (1996): 205-214; Subir Sengupta, "The Influence of Culture on Portrayals of Women in Television Commercials: A Comparison Between the United States and Japan," International Journal of Advertising 14 (fall 1995): 314-20; Chow-Hou Wee, Mei-Lan Choong, and Siok-Kuan Tambyah, "Sex Role Portrayal in Television Advertising," International Marketing Review 13 (1995): 49-64; Charles R. Wiles, Judith A. Wiles, and Anders Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden," Journal of Advertising Research (May/June 1996): 57-65; and Nan Zhou Nan and Mervin Y.T. Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising: Today's Portrayal, Yesterday's Image?" Journal of Business Ethics 16 (1997): 485-95.
36. Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising."
37. Gilly, "Sex Roles in Advertising."
38. Sengupta, "Influence of Culture."
39. Furnham and Bitar, "Stereotyped Portrayal."
40. Adrian Furnham and Emma Skae, "Stereotypical Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements," European Psychologist 2 (1997): 44-51.
41. U.S. Census Bureau's web site, http://www.census.gov
42. Herbig and Yelkur, "Differences Between."
43. Gerardo Marin and Barbara VanOss Marin, Research with Hispanic Populations (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1991). Also George M. Foster, "Contemporary Hispanic American Culture: The Product of Acculturation," in Latinos in the United States, Historical Themes and Identity, ed. Antoinette Sedillo Lopez (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995), 17-25.
44. Gerardo Marin and Barbara VanOss Marin, Research with Hispanic Populations (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1991). Also George M. Foster, "Contemporary Hispanic American Culture: The Product of Acculturation," in Latinos in the United States, Historical Themes and Identity, ed. Antoinette Sedillo Lopez (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995), 17-25.
45. Marin and Marin, Research with Hispanic Populations.
46. Marin and Marin, Research with Hispanic Populations.
47. Maria Gomez and Ruth E. Fassinger, "An Initial Model of Latina Achievement: Acculturation, Biculturalism and Achieving Styles," Journal of Counseling Psychology 41 (1994): 205-215.
48. Frank Bean, Elizabeth H. Stephen, and Wolfgang Opitz, "The Mexi can Origin Population in the United States: A Demographic Overview," in Ignored Voices: Public Opinion Polls and the Latino Community, ed. Rodolfo de la Garza (Austin, TX: CMAS University of Texas, 1985), 32-41.
49. Jacqueline Sanchez, "Some Approaches Are Better Than Others When Approaching Hispanics," Marketing News, 25 May 1992, 8.
50. Susan Welch and Lee Sigelman, "A Gender Gap Among Hispanics? A Comparison with Blacks and Anglos," The Western Political Quarterly 45 (March 1992): 181-99.
51. Sanchez, "Some Approaches."
52. Valdes and Seone, Hispanic Market Handbook.
53. Sanchez, "Some Approaches."
54. Valdes and Seone, Hispanic Market Handbook; Tomas Rivera Policy Institute, Talking Back to Television: Latinos discuss how television portrays them and the quality of programming options (Claremorent, CA: The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute, 1998).
55. Valdes and Seone, Hispanic Market Handbook; Tomas Rivera Policy Institute, Talking Back to Television: Latinos discuss how television portrays them and the quality of programming options (Claremorent, CA: The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute, 1998).
56. "Communicating on the Customer's Terms: Hispanics Want More Conversation, Values," Minority Market Alert 5, 1 May 1997, 5.
57. See for example Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; Alice E. Courtney and Sarah W. Lockeretz, "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 8 (February 1971): 92-95; Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part"; Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles"; and Silverstein and Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising."
58. See for example Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; Alice E. Courtney and Sarah W. Lockeretz, "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 8 (February 1971): 92-95; Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part"; Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles"; and Silverstein and Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising."
59. See for example Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; Alice E. Courtney and Sarah W. Lockeretz, "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 8 (February 1971): 92-95; Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part"; Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles"; and Silverstein and Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising."
60. See for example Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; Alice E. Courtney and Sarah W. Lockeretz, "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 8 (February 1971): 92-95; Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part"; Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles"; and Silverstein and Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising."
61. See for example Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; Alice E. Courtney and Sarah W. Lockeretz, "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 8 (February 1971): 92-95; Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part"; Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles"; and Silverstein and Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising."
62. See for example Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; Alice E. Courtney and Sarah W. Lockeretz, "A Woman's Place: An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Marketing Research 8 (February 1971): 92-95; Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part"; Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles"; and Silverstein and Silverstein, "The Portrayal of Women in Television Advertising."
63. See Ole R. Holsti, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences end Humanities (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1969).
64. Kelli Reagan, "Habla DRTV?" Response TV, 1 August 1997, 27.
65. Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles."
66. Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
67. Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials."
68. Erving Goffman, Gender Advertisements (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).
69. Lawrence Soley and Gary Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising: A Comparison of 1964 and 1984 Magazine Advertisements," Journal of Advertising 15 (fall 1986): 46-54.
70. McArthur and Resko, "Portrayal of Men and Women."
71. Alice Gagnard, "From Feast to Famine: Depiction of Ideal Body Type in Magazine Advertising: 1950-1984," cited in Women in Mass Communication, 2d ed., ed. Pamela J. Creedon (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1993).
72. Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles."
73. The authors acknowledge that there are limitations to this study because both coders were not fluent in Spanish and because the commercials were translated and then evaluated in English.
74. Holsti, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities
75. From Univision internal memo dated 20 October 97.
76. Public Service Announcements were sponsored by the American Cancer Society to promote nonsmoking, the U.S. Department of Transportation's Operation Lifesaver to promote seatbelt usage, Drug Free America (2 spots), McGruff's "Take a Bite Out of Crime" campaign, American Heart Association, and Goodwill Industries.
77. Riffe, Place, and Mayo, "Game Time, Soap Time and Prime Time TV Ads."
78. See Goffman, Gender Advertisements.
79. Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising: A Comparison of 1964 and 1984 Magazine Advertisements."
80. See Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising: A Comparison of 1964 and 1984 Magazine Advertisements."
81. For Gagnard's computation of a Yendex see "From Feast to Famine: Depiction of Ideal Body Type in Magazine Advertising: 1950-1984."
82. Kathleen Murray, "Banging the Drums as Spanish TV Comes of Age," The New York Times, 10 April 1994, late edition, p. 10.
83. See Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; McArthur and Resko, "Portrayal of Men and Women;" Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; and Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
84. See Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; McArthur and Resko, "Portrayal of Men and Women;" Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; and Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
85. See Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; McArthur and Resko, "Portrayal of Men and Women;" Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; and Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
86. See Dominick and Rauch, "The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials"; McArthur and Resko, "Portrayal of Men and Women;" Bretl and Cantor, "Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials"; and Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part."
87. Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising: A Comparison of 1964 and 1984 Magazine Advertisements."
88. Soley and Kurzbard, "Sex in Advertising: A Comparison of 1964 and 1984 Magazine Advertisements
89. See Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part;" Riffe, Place, and Mayo, "Game Time, Soap Time and Prime Time TV Ads;" and Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles."
90. See Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part;" Riffe, Place, and Mayo, "Game Time, Soap Time and Prime Time TV Ads;" and Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles."
91. See Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part;" Riffe, Place, and Mayo, "Game Time, Soap Time and Prime Time TV Ads;" and Schneider and Schneider, "Trends in Sex Roles."
92. See Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials;" Wiles, Wiles, and Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden;" and Zhou and Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising."
93. See Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials;" Wiles, Wiles, and Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden;" and Zhou and Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising."
94. See Mwangi, "Gender Roles Portrayed in Kenyan Television Commercials;" Wiles, Wiles, and Tjernlund, "The Ideology of Advertising: The United States and Sweden;" and Zhou and Chen, "A Content Analysis of Men and Women in Canadian Magazine Advertising."