The management of wild large herbivores to meet economic, conservation and environmental objectives

Journal of Applied Ecology

Volumn 41, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 1021-1031

  Gordon, Iain J ^a,b   Hester, Alison J ^a   Festa Bianchet, Marco ^c  

^a SCOTTISH CROP RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

^b CSIRO   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Bighorn sheep; Conservation; Habitat management; Impala; Population dynamics; Red deer; Saiga antelope; Ungulates

Indexed keywords

HABITAT CONSERVATION; HERBIVORE; RURAL PLANNING; UNGULATE; WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT;

AEPYCEROS MELAMPUS; ANIMALIA; CALLUNA; CALLUNA VULGARIS; CERVIDAE; CERVUS ELAPHUS; OVIS ARIES; OVIS CANADENSIS; SAIGA; UNGULATA;

EID: 11144326716     PISSN: 00218901     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00985.x     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. Adler, P.B., Raff, D.A. & Lauenroth, W.K. (2001) The effect of grazing on the spatial heterogeneity of vegetation. Oecologia, 128, 465-479.
2. Apollino, M., Bassano, B. & Mustoni, A. (2003) Behavioral aspects of conservation and management of European mammals. Animal Behavior and Wildlife Conservation (eds M. Festa-Bianchet & M. Apollino), pp. 157-170. Island Press, Washington, DC.
3. Apps, C.D., Mclellan, B.N., Kinley, T.A. & Flaa, J.P. (2001) Scale-dependent habitat selection by mountain caribou, Columbia Mountains, British Columbia. Journal of Wildlife Management, 65, 65-77.
4. Archer, S. (1996) Assessing and interpreting grass: woody plant dynamics. The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems (eds J. Hodgson & A.W. Illius), pp. 101-134. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
5. Armstrong, H.M., Gordon, I.J., Sibbald, A.R., Hutchings, N.J., Illius, A.W. & Milne, J.A. (1997) Amodel of grazing by sheep on hill systems in the UK. II. The prediction of offtake by sheep. Journal of Applied Ecology, 34, 186-207.
6. Ashley, M.V., Willson, M.F., Pergams, O.R.W, O'Dowd, D.J., Gende, S.M. & Brown, J.S. (2003) Evolutionarily enlightened management. Biological Conservation, 111, 115-123.
7. Bailey, D.W., Dumont, B. & Wallis de Vries, M.F. (1998) Utilization of heterogeneous grassland by domestic herbivores: theory to management. Annales Zootechnie, 47, 321-333.
8. Bailey, D.W., Gross, J.E., Laca, E.A., Rittenhouse, L.R., Coughenour, M.B., Swift, D.M. & Sims, P.L. (1996) Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns. Journal of Range Management, 49, 386-400.
9. Baillie, J. & Groombridge, B. (1996) 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Gland, Switzerland.
10. Baines, D., Sage, R.B. & Baines, M.M. (1994) The implications of red deer grazing to ground vegetation and invertebrate communities of Scottish native pinewoods. Journal of Applied Ecology, 31, 776-783.
11. Ball, J.P., Danell, K. & Sunesson, P. (2000) Response of a herbivore community to increased food quality and quantity: an experiment with nitrogen fertilizer in a boreal forest. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 247-255.
12. Barnes, J.I., Schier, C. & van Rooy, G. (1999) Tourists' willingness to pay for wildlife viewing and wildlife conservation in Namibia. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 29, 101-111.
13. Beard, P. (1988) The End of the Game. Chronicle Books, San Francisco, CA.
14. Beaumont, D., Dugan, D., Evans, G. & Taylor, S. (1994) Deer management and tree regeneration in the RSPB reserve at Abernethy Forest. Our Pinewood Heritage (ed. J.R. Aldhous), pp. 186-195. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, UK.
15. Bekenov, A.B., Grachev, I.A. & Milner-Gulland, E.J. (1998) The ecology and management of the saiga antelope in Kazakhstan. Mammal Review, 28, 1-52.
16. Bender, L., Fowler, P.E., Bernatouwicz, J.A., Masser, J.L. & Stream, L.E. (2002) Effects of open-entry spike-bull, limited-entry branched-bull harvesting on elk composition in Washington. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 30, 1078-1084.
17. Biederbeck, H.H., Boulay, M.C. & Jackson, D.H. (2001) Effects of hunting regulations on bull elk survival and age structure. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 29, 1271-1277.
18. Birks, H.J.B. (1988) Long-term ecological change in the British uplands. Ecological Change in the Uplands (eds M.B. Usher & D.B.H. Thompson), pp. 37-56. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK.
19. Bodmer, R.E., Fang, T.G. & Ibanez, L.M. (1988) Ungulate management and conservation in the Peruvian Amazon. Biological Conservation, 45, 303-3310.
20. Boone, R.B., Coughenour, M.B., Galvin, K.A. & Ellis, J.E. (2002) Addressing management questions for Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, using the SAVANNA modelling system. African Journal of Ecology, 40, 138-150.
21. Bowen-Jones, E. & Entwistle, A. (2002) Identifying appropriate flagship species: the importance of culture and local contexts. Oryx, 36, 189-195.
22. Bullock, J.M. (1996) Plant competition and population dynamics. The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems (eds J. Hodgson & A.W. Illius), pp. 69-100. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
23. Bullock, J.M., Franklin, J., Stevenson, M.J., Silvertown, J., Coulson, S.J., Gregory, S.J. & Tofts, R. (2001) A plant trait analysis of responses to grazing in a long-term experiment. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38, 253-267.
24. Caughley, G. & Sinclair, A.R.E. (1994) Wildlife Ecology and Management. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
25. Chan, S., Maksimuk, A.V. & Zhirnov, L.V. (1995) From Steppe to Store: The Trade in Saiga Antelope Horn. Species in Danger Series. TRAFFIC, Cambridge, UK.
26. Clarke, J.L., Welch, D. & Gordon, I.J. (1995) The influence of vegetation pattern on the grazing of heather moorland by red deer and sheep. II. The impact on heather. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32, 177-186.
27. Clutton-Brock, T.H., Coulson, T.N., Milner-Gulland, E.J., Thomson, D. & Armstrong, H.M. (2002) Sex differences in emigration and mortality affect optimal management of deer populations. Nature, 415, 633-637.
28. Clutton-Brock, T.H., Guiness, F.E. & Albon, S.D. (1982) Red Deer, Behavior and Ecology of Two Sexes. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
29. Coltman, D.W., O'Donoghue, P., Jorgenson, J.T., Hogg, J.T., Strobeck, C. & Festa-Bianchet, M. (2003) Undesirable evolutionary consequences of trophy hunting. Nature, 426, 655-658.
30. Conover, M.R. (1997) Monetary and intangible valuation of deer in the United States. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 25, 298-305.
31. Coulson, T., Mace, G.M., Hudson, E. & Possingham, H. (2001) The use and abuse of population viability analysis. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 16, 219-221.
32. Crete, M. & Courtois, R. (1997) Limiting factors might obscure population regulation of moose (Cervidae: Alces alces) in unproductive boreal forests. Journal of Zoology, London, 242, 765-781.
33. Crawley, M.J. (1997) Plant Ecology, 2nd edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
34. Dale, V.H., Brown, S., Haeuber, R.A., Hobbs, N.T., Huntly, N., Naiman, R.J., Riebsame, W.E., Turner, M.G. & Valone, T.J. (2000) Ecological principles and guidelines for managing the use of land. Ecological Applications, 10, 639-670.
35. Danell, K., Bergstrom, R., Duncan, P., Pastor, J. & Olff, H. (in press) Large Herbivore Ecology and Ecosystem Dynamics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
36. Danks, F.S. & Klein, D.R. (2002) Using GIS to predict potential wildlife habitat: a case study of muskoxen in northern Alaska. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23, 4611-4632.
37. Danz, H.P. (1997) Of Bison and Man: from the Annals of a Bison Yesterday to a Refreshing Outcome from Human Involvement with America's Most Valiant of Beasts. Colorado University Press, Boulder, COL.
38. Darling, F.F. (1960) An ecological reconnaissance of the Mara plains in Kenya Colony. Wildlife Monographs, 5, 1-41.
39. De Garine, I. & de Garine-Wichatitsky, M. (1999) Providing impala meat (Aepyceros melampus) to local populations in Nyaminyami (Omay, Zimbabwe). Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, 262, 61-73.
40. Department of the Environment (1994) Biodiversity: The UK Action Plan. HMSO, London, UK.
41. Du Toit, J.T. (2002) Wildlife harvesting guidelines for community-based wildlife management: a southern African perspective. Biodiversity and Conservation, 11, 1403-1416.
42. Elton, C.S. (1924) Periodic fluctuations in the number of animals: their causes and effects. British Journal of Experimental Biology, 2, 119-163.
43. Fairall, N. (1985) Manipulation of age and sex-ratios to optimize production from impala Aepyceros melampus populations. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 15, 85-88.
44. Féron, E., Tafira, J.K., Belemsobgo, U., Blomme, S. & Garine-Wichatitsky (de), M. (1998) Transforming wild African herbivores into edible meat for local communities. A community owned mechanism for the sustainable use of impala (Aepyceros melampus) in the CAMPFIRE Programme, Zimbabwe. Revue Elevage et Médecine Vétérinaire Pays Tropicale, 51, 265-272.
45. Festa-Bianchet, M. (2003) Exploitative wildlife management as a selective pressure for the life-history evolution of large mammals. Animal Behavior and Wildlife Conservation (eds M. Festa-Bianchet & M. Apollonio), pp. 191-207. Island Press, Washington, DC.
46. Festa-Bianchet, M., Gaillard, J.-M. & Côté, S.D. (2003) Variable age structure and apparent density-dependence in survival of adult ungulates. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72, 640-649.
47. Fryxell, J.M., Hussell, D.J.T., Lambert, A.B. & Smith, P.C. (1991) Time lags and population fluctuations in white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management, 55, 377-385.
48. Gaidet, N., Fritz, H. & Nyahuma, C. (2003) A participatory method to monitor populations of large mammals in non-protected areas: a case study of bicycle counts in the Zambezi Valley. Biodiversity and Conservation, 12, 1571-1585.
49. Gaillard, J.M., Boutin, J.M., Delorme, D., Van Laere, G., Duncan, P. & Lebreton, J.D. (1997) Early survival in roe deer: causes and consequences of cohort variation in two contrasted populations. Oecologia, 112, 502-513.
50. Gaillard, J.-M., Festa-Bianchet, M. & Yoccoz, N.G. (1998) Population dynamics of large herbivores: variable recruitment with constant adult survival. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 58-63.
51. Gaillard, J.-M., Festa-Bianchet, M., Yoccoz, N.G., Loison, A. & Toigo, C. (2000) Temporal variation in fitness components and population dynamics of large herbivores. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 31, 367-393.
52. Gaillard, J.-M., Loison, A. & Toïgo, C. (2003) Variation in life history traits and realistic population models for wildlife management: the case of ungulates. Animal Behavior and Wildlife Conservation (eds M. Festa-Bianchet & M. Apollonio), pp. 115-132. Island Press, Washington, DC.
53. Geist, V. (1994) Wildlife conservation as wealth. Nature, 368, 491-492.
54. Georgiadis, N., Hack, M. & Turpin, K. (2003) The influence of rainfall on zebra population dynamics: implications for management. Journal of Applied Ecology, 40, 125-136.
55. Gill, R.M.A. (1990) Monitoring the Status of European and North American Cervids. Information Series 8. Global Environment Monitoring System, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
56. Gill, R.M.A. (1992) A review of damage by deer in north temperate forests. I. Deer. Forestry, 65, 145-169.
57. Ginsberg, J.R. & Milner-Gulland, E.J. (1994) Sex-biased harvesting and population dynamics in ungulates: implications for conservation and sustainable use. Conservation Biology, 8, 157-166.
58. Gordon, I.J. (1989) Vegetation community selection by ungulates on the Isle of Rhum. II. Vegetation community selection. Journal of Applied Ecology, 26, 53-64.
59. Grime, J.P. (1973) Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature, 242, 344-347.
60. Harris, R.B. & Shilai, M. (1997) Initiating a hunting ethic in Lisu villages, western Yunnan, China. Mountain Research and Development, 17, 171-176.
61. Harris, R.B., Wall, W.A. & Allendorf, F.W. (2002) Genetic consequences of hunting: what do we know and what should we do? Wildlife Society Bulletin, 30, 634-643.
62. Hester, A.J. & Baillie, G.J. (1998) Spatial and temporal patterns of heather use by sheep and red deer within natural heather/grass mosaics. Journal of Applied Ecology, 35, 772-784.
63. Hester, A.J., Edenius, L., Buttenshøn, R.M. & Kuiters, A.T. (2000) Interactions between forests and herbivores: the role of controlled grazing experiments. Forestry, 73, 381-391.
64. Hester, A.J., Gordon, I.J., Baillie, G.J. & Tappin, E. (1999) Foraging behaviour of sheep and red deer within natural heather/ grass mosaics. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 133-146.
65. Hester, A.J., Millard, P., Baillie, G.J. & Wendler, R. (2004) How does timing of browsing affect above- and below-ground growth of Betula pendula, Pinus sylvestris and Sorbus aucuparia? Oikos, 105, 536-550.
66. Hester, A.J., Mitchell, F.J.G. & Kirby, K.J. (1996) Effects of season and intensity of sheep grazing on tree regeneration in a British upland woodland. Forest Ecology and Management, 88, 99-106.
67. Hobbs, N.T. (1996) Modification of ecosystems by ungulates. Journal of Wildlife Management, 60, 695-713.
68. Hogg, J.T. (2000) Mating systems and conservation at large spatial scales. Vertebrate Mating Systems (eds M. Apollonio, M. Festa-Bianchet & D. Mainardi), pp. 214-252. World Scientific, Toh Tuck Link, Singapore.
69. Hulme, D. & Murphree, M. (2001) African Wildlife and Livelihoods. The Promise and Performance of Community Conservation. James Curry Ltd, Oxford, UK.
70. Humphrey, J.W., Gill, R.M. & Claridge, J. (1998) Grazing as a Management Tool in European forest Ecosystems. Technical Paper 25. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, UK.
71. Hunter, R.F. (1962) Hill sheep and their pasture: a study of sheep-grazing in south east Scotland. Journal of Ecology, 50, 651-680.
72. Illius, A.W. & O'Connor, T.G. (2000) Resource heterogeneity and ungulate population dynamics. Oikos, 89, 283-294.
73. IUCN (2002) Red Data Book. International Union for the Conservation of Nature., Gland Switzerland. http://www.redlist.org/
74. Jachmann, H. (2002) Comparison of aerial counts with ground counts for large African herbivores. Journal of Applied Ecology, 9, 841-852.
75. Jacobson, A.R., Provenzale, A., Hardenberg, A.V., Bassano, B. & Festa-Bianchet, M. (2004) Climate forcing and density-dependence in a mountain ungulate population. Ecology, 85, 1598-1610.
76. Jarman, P.J. (1974) The social organisation of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour, 48, 215-267.
77. Jennings, S., Reynolds, J.D. & Mills, S.C. (1998) Life history correlates of responses to fisheries exploitation. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B, 265, 333-339.
78. Johnson, C.J., Parker, K.L., Herad, D.C. & Gillingham, M.P. (2002) Movement parameters of ungulates and scale-specific responses to the environment. Journal of Animal Ecology, 71, 225-235.
79. Jolly, G.M. (1969) Sampling methods for aerial censuses of game animals. East African Agricultural Forestry Journal, 34, 46-49.
80. Kingdon, J. (1972) East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa. Academic Press, London, UK.
81. Kirby, K. (2001) Where have all the flowers gone? Are our woodland flowers disappearing? Biologist, 48, 182-186.
82. Kolasa, J. & Pickett, S.T. (1991) Ecological Heterogeneity. Ecological Studies 86. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
83. Laing, S.E., Buckland, S.T., Burn, R.W., Lambie, D. & Amphlett, A. (2003) Dung and nest surveys: estimating decay rates. Journal of Applied Ecology, 40, 1102-1111.
84. Landsberg, J., James, C.D., Morton, S.R., Muller, W.J. & Stol, J. (2003) Abundance and composition of plant species along grazing gradients in Australian rangelands. Journal of Applied Ecology, 40, 1008-1024.
85. Langvatn, R. & Loison, A. (1999) Consequences of harvesting on age structure, sex ratio and population dynamics of red deer Cervus elaphus in central Norway. Wildlife Biology, 5, 213-223.
86. Laurian, C., Ouellet, J.P., Courtois, R., Breton, L. & St-Onge, S. (2000) Effects of intensive harvesting on moose reproduction. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 515-531.
87. Law, R. (2001) Phenotypic and genetic changes due to selective exploitation. Conservation of Exploited Species (eds J.D. Reynolds, G.M. Mace, K.H. Redford & J.G. Robinson), pp. 323-342. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
88. Leader-Williams, N., Smith, R.J. & Walpole, M.J. (2001) Elephant hunting and conservation. Science, 293, 2203-2204.
89. Lewis, J.G. (1975) A comparative study of the activity of some indigenous East African ungulates and conventional stock under domestication. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of London, London, UK.
90. Loibooki, M., Hofer, H., Campbell, K.L.I. & East, M.L. (2002) Bushmeat hunting by communities adjacent to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: the importance of livestock ownership and alternative sources of protein and income. Environmental Conservation, 29, 391-398.
91. Ludwig, D., Hilborn, R. & Walters, C. (1993) Uncertainty, resource exploitation, and conservation: lessons from history. Science, 260, 17-18.
92. Mackenzie, N. (1999) The Native Woodland Resource of Scotland. A Review 1993-98. Technical Paper 30. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, UK.
93. McCullough, D.R. (1996) Spatially structured populations and harvest theory - Invited paper. Journal of Wildlife Management, 60, 1-9.
94. McShea, W.J., Underwood, H.B. & Rappole, J.H. (1997) The Science of Overabundance. Deer Ecology and Population Management. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
95. Malo, J.E., Suárez, F. & Díez, A. (2004) Can we mitigate animal-vehicle accidents using predictive models? Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 701-710.
96. Martin, P. (1993) Vegetation responses and feedbacks to climate: a review of models and processes. Climate Dynamics, 8, 201-210.
97. Mduma, S.A.R., Sinclair, A.R.E. & Hilborn, R. (1999) Food regulates the Serengeti wildebeest: a 40-year record. Journal of Animal Ecology, 68, 1101-1122.
98. Messier, F. (1994) Ungulate population models with predation: a case study with the North American moose. Ecology, 75, 478-488.
99. Milchunas, D.G. & Lauenroth, W.K. (1993) Quantitative effects of grazing on vegetation and soils over a global range of environments. Ecological Monographs, 63, 327-366.
100. Miles, J. (1985) The pedogenic effects of different species and vegetation types and the implications of succession. Journal of Soil Science, 36, 571-584.
101. Miller, G.R., Cummins, R. & Hester, A.J. (1998) Red deer and woodland regeneration in the Cairngorms. Scottish Forestry, 52, 14-20.
102. Milne, J.A., Birch, C.P.D., Hester, A.J., Armstrong, H.M. & Robertson, A. (1998) The impact of vertebrate herbivores on the natural heritage of the Scottish uplands: a review. Scottish Natural Heritage Review, 95, 1-127.
103. Milner-Gulland, E.J. (1997) A stochastic dynamic programming model for the management of the saiga antelope. Ecological Applications, 7, 130-142.
104. Milner-Gulland, E.J. & Mace, R.H. (1991) The impact of the ivory trade on the elephant population of the trade, as assessed by data from the trade. Biological Conservation, 55, 215-229.
105. Milner-Gulland, E.J., Bukreeva, O.M., Coulson, T., Lushchekina, A.A., Kholodova, M.V., Bekenov, A.B. & Grachev, I.A. (2003) Reproductive collapse in a harem-breeding ungulate. Nature, 422, 135.
106. Milner-Gulland, E.J., Kholodova, M.V., Bekenov, A., Bukreeva, O.M., Grachev, I.A., Amgalan, L. & Lushchekina, A.A. (2001) Dramatic declines in saiga antelope populations. Oryx, 35, 340-345.
107. Murphree, M.W. (1998) Ex Africa simper aliquid novi? Considerations in linking African environmental scholarship, policy and practice. Communities and Sustainable Use: Pan-African Perspectives (eds N. Christoffersen, B. Campbell & J. du Toit), pp. 3-7. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
108. Murphree, M. (2001) A case study in ecotourism development from Mahenye, Zimbabwe. African Wildlife and Livelihoods. The Promise and Performance of Community Conservation (eds D. Hulme, & M. Murphree), pp. 177-194. James Curry Ltd, Oxford, UK.
109. Murray, M.G. (1982) Home range, dispersal and the clan system of impala. African Journal of Ecology, 20, 53-269.
110. Mysterud, A., Coulson, T. & Stenseth, N.C. (2002) The role of males in the dynamics of ungulate populations. Journal of Animal Ecology, 71, 907-915.
111. Noyes, J.H., Johnson, B.K., Bryant, L.D., Findholt, S.L. & Thomas, J.W. (1996) Effects of bull age on conception dates and pregnancy rates of cow elk. Journal of Wildlife Management, 60, 508-517.
112. Ogutu, Z.A. (2002) The impact of ecotourism on livelihood and natural resource management in Eselenkei, Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya. Land Degradation and Development, 13, 251-256.
113. Olff, H. & Ritchie, M.E. (1998) Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 261-265.
114. Olsen, E.M., Heino, M., Lilly, G.R., Morgan, M.J., Brattey, J., Ernande, B. & Dieckmann, U. (2004) Maturation trends indicative of rapid evolution preceded the collapse of northern cod. Nature, 428, 932-935.
115. Oom, S.P., Hester, A.J., Elston, D.A. & Legg, C.J. (2002) Spatial interaction models: from human geography to plant-herbivore interactions. Oikos, 98, 65-74.
116. Owen-Smith, N. (1993) Comparative mortality rates of male and female kudus: the costs of sexual size dimorphism. Journal of Animal Ecology, 62, 428-440.
117. Palmer, S.C.F., Hester, A.J., Elston, D.A., Gordon, I.J. & Hartley, S.E. (2003) The perils of having tasty neighbors: grazing impacts of large herbivores at vegetation boundaries. Ecology, 84, 2877-2890.
118. Pastor, J., Dewey, B., Moen, R., Mladenoff, D.J., White, M. & Cohen, Y. (1998) Spatial patterns in the moose-forest-soil ecosystem on Isle Royale, Michigan, USA. Ecological Applications, 8, 411-424.
119. Pickup, G., Bastin, G.N. & Chewings, V.H. (1998) Identifying trends in land degradation in non-equilibrium rangelands. Journal of Applied Ecology, 35, 365-377.
120. Portier, C., Festa-Bianchet, M., Gaillard, J.M., Jorgenson, J.T. & Yoccoz, N.G. (1998) Effects of density and weather on survival of bighorn sheep lambs (Ovis canadensis). Journal of Zoology, 245, 271-278.
121. Post, E. & Stenseth, N.C. (1998) Large-scale climatic fluctuation and population dynamics of moose and white-tailed deer. Journal of Animal Ecology, 67, 537-543.
122. Prins, H.H.T., Grootenhuis, J.G. & Dolan, T.T. (2000) Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use. Conservation Biology Series. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA.
123. Putman, R.J. & Moore, N.P. (1998) Impact of deer in lowland Britain on agriculture, forestry and conservation habitats. Mammal Review, 28, 141-164.
124. Ramsay, P. (1997) Revival of the Land: Creag Meagaidh National Nature Reserve. Scottish Natural Heritage, Perth, UK.
125. Ratcliffe, P.R. (1987) The Management of Red Deer in Upland Forests. Forestry Commission Bulletin 71. HMSO, London, UK.
126. Rea, R.V. (2003) Modifying roadside vegetation management practices to reduce vehicular collisions with moose Alces alces. Wildlife Biology, 9, 81-91.
127. Reichman, O.J., Benedix, J.H. Jr & Seastedt, T.R. (1993) Distinct animal-generated edge effects in a tallgrass prairie community. Ecology, 74, 1281-1285.
128. Reynolds, P. & Staines, B. (1997) Deer management in Scotland. Conservation and the Use of Wildlife Resources (ed. M. Bolton), pp. 171-190. Chapman&Hall, London, UK.
129. Rietkerk, M., Ketner, P., Burger, J., Hoorens, B. & Olff, H. (2000) Multiscale soil and vegetation patchiness along a gradient of herbivore impact in a semi-arid grazing system in West Africa. Plant Ecology, 148, 207-224.
130. Ritchie, M.E. & Olff, H. (1999) Spatial scaling laws yield a synthetic theory of biodiversity. Nature, 400, 557-560.
131. Roosevelt, T. (1910) African Game Trails; An Account of the African Wanderings of an American Hunter-Naturalist. Scribner's, New York, NY.
132. Rouget, C., Dumont, B. & Prache, S. (1998) Selection and use of feeding sites and feeding stations by herbivores: a review. Productions Animales, 11, 273-284.
133. Ryerson, D.E. & Parmenter, R.R. (2001) Vegetation change following removal of keystone herbivores from desert grasslands in New Mexico. Journal of Vegetation Science, 12, 167-180.
134. Saether, B.E. (1997) Environmental stochasticity and population dynamics of large herbivores: a search for mechanisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 12, 143-149.
135. Schaefer, O.J.A. & Messier, F. (1995) Habitat selection as a hierarchy: the spatial scales of winter foraging by muskoxen. Ecography, 18, 333-344.
136. Senft, R.L., Coughenour, M.B., Bailey, D.W., Rittenhouse, L.R., Sala, O.E. & Swift, D.M. (1987) Large herbivore foraging and ecological hierarchies. Bioscience, 37, 789-799.
137. Sharp, R. (2002) Saiga antelope facing catastrophe. Oryx, 36, 323-323.
138. Sheail, J. (1985) Pesticides and Nature Conservation: The British Experience 1950-1975. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.
139. Sheail, J. (1987) Seventy-Five Years in Ecology. The British Ecological Society. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK.
140. Sibbald, A.M. & Gordon, I.J. (2001) Tracking Animals with GPS. Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK.
141. Sibbald, A.M., Hooper, R.J. & Gordon, I.J. (2001) Using GPS to study the effects of human disturbance on the behaviour of red deer stags on a highland estate in Scotland. Tracking Animals with GPS (eds A.M. Sibbald & I.J. Gordon), pp. 39-43. Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK.
142. Sinclair, A.R.E. (1977) The African Buffalo; A Study of Resource Limitation of Populations. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
143. Smith, B.L. & Anderson, S.H. (1998) Juvenile survival and population regulation of the Jackson elk herd. Journal of Wildlife Management, 62, 1036-1045.
144. Smithers, R.H.N. (1983) The Mammals of the Southern African Sub-Region. University of Pretoria Press, Pretoria, South Africa.
145. Solberg, E.J., Loison, A., Ringsby, T.H., Saether, B.E. & Heim, M. (2002) Biased adult sex ratio can affect fecundity in primiparous moose Alces alces. Wildlife Biology, 8, 117-128.
146. Solberg, E.J., Sæther, B.E., Strand, O. & Loison, A. (1999) Dynamics of a harvested moose population in a variable environment. Journal of Animal Ecology, 68, 186-204.
147. Spalton, J.A., Lawrence, M.W. & Brend, S.A. (1999) Arabian oryx reintroduction in Oman: successes and setbacks. Oryx, 33, 168-175.
148. Stalmans, M.E., Witkowski, E.T.F. & Balkwill, K. (2002) Evaluating the ecological relevance of habitat maps for wild herbivores. Journal of Range Management, 55, 127-134.
149. Stanley Price, M.R. (1989) Animal Reintroductions: The Arabian Oryx in Oman. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
150. Stinchcombe, J., Moyle, L.C., Hudgens, B.R., Loch, PL., Chinnadurai, S. & Morris, W.F. (2002) The influence of the academic conservation biology literature on endangered species recovery planning. Conservation Ecology, 6, 15.
151. Stohlgren, T.J., Schell, L.D. & van den Heuvel, B. (1999) How grazing and soil quality affect native and exotic plant diversity in rocky mountain grasslands. Ecological Applications, 9, 45-64.
152. Sutherland, W.J. (2000) The Conservation Handbook. Research, Management and Policy. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK.
153. Tainton, N.M., Morris, C.D. & Hardy, M.B. (1996) Complexity and stability in grazing systems. The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems (eds J. Hodgson & A.W. Illius), pp. 275-300. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
154. Teer, J.G., Neronov, V.M., Zhirnov, L.V. & Blizniuk, A.I. (1996) Status and exploitation of the saiga antelope in Kalmykia. The Exploitation of Mammal Populations (eds V.J. Taylor & N. Dunstone), pp. 75-87. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
155. Terry, E.L., Mclellan, B.N. & Watts, G.S. (2000) Winter habitat ecology of mountain caribou in relation to forest management. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 589-602.
156. Thompson, D.B.A., Hester, A.J. & Usher, M.B. (1995) Heaths and Moorland: Cultural Landscapes. HMSO, Edinburgh, UK.
157. du Toit, J.T., Walker, B.H. & Campbell, B.M. (2004) Conserving tropical nature: current challenges for ecologists. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 12-17.
158. Towers, W., Hall, J., Hester, A.J. & Malcolm, A. (2004) The potential for native woodland in Scotland: the native woodland model. Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby, UK.
159. van der Waal, C. & Dekker, B. (2000) Game ranching in the Northern Province of South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 30, 151-156.
160. Wallis de Vries, M.F. (1996) Effects of resource distribution patterns on ungulate foraging behaviour. A modelling approach. Forest Ecology and Management, 88, 167-177.
161. Wallis de Vries, M.F., Bakker, J.P. & van Wieren, S.E. (1998) Grazing and Conservation Management. Conservation Biology Series. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
162. Welch, D. (1984) Studies in the grazing of heather moorland in Northeast Scotland. I. Sites descriptions and patterns of utilization. Journal of Applied Ecology, 21, 179-195.
163. Williamson, L.L. & Doster, G.L. (1981) Socio-economic aspects of white-tailed deer disease. Diseases and Parasites of White-Tailed Deer (ed. W.R. Davidson), pp. 434-439. Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.