Prevention and treament of gastrointestinal complications in patients on mechanical ventilation

American Journal of Respiratory Medicine

Volumn 2, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 395-411

  Mutlu, Gökhan M ^a,d   Mutlu, Ece A ^b   Factor, Phillip ^c  

^a EVANSTON NORTHWESTERN HEALTHCARE   (United States)

^b RUSH MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^c College of Physicians and Surgeons ^*  (United States)

^d NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE (POTASSIUM); ANTACID AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ATENOLOL; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BETHANECHOL; CHOLECYSTOKININ; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CYTOKINE; DILTIAZEM; DOMPERIDONE; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ERYTHROMYCIN; HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ISOPRENALINE; METOCLOPRAMIDE; METRONIDAZOLE; NEOSTIGMINE; OPIATE DERIVATIVE; PHENOTHIAZINE; PIRENZEPINE; PROPOFOL; PROSTAGLANDIN DERIVATIVE; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; PROTON TRANSPORTING ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE; SORBITOL; SUCRALFATE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VERAPAMIL;

ACALCULOUS CHOLECYSTITIS; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DIARRHEA; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FUNCTION DISORDER; DOSE RESPONSE; ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCE; ENTERIC FEEDING; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LUNG PERFUSION; META ANALYSIS; NASOGASTRIC TUBE; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REFLUX ESOPHAGITIS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INJURY; RESPIRATORY TRACT MUCOSA; REVIEW; SPLANCHNIC BLOOD FLOW; STOMACH EMPTYING; STOMACH PH; STRESS; STRESS ULCER;

GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; HUMANS; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL;

EID: 0242363121     PISSN: 11756365     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF03256667     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Mutlu GM, Factor P. Complications of mechanical ventilation. Respir Care Clin N Am 2000; 6: 213-52
2. Mutlu GM, Mutlu EA, Factor P. GI complications in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest 2001; 119: 1222-41
3. Haglund U. The gastrointestinal and hepatic systems: normal physiology: the gastrointestinal system. In: Webb AR, Shapiro MJ, Singer M, Suter PM, editors. Oxford textbook of critical care. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999: 297-300
4. Bohlen GH. Tissue oxygenation and splanchnic blood flow. In: Shepherd AP, Granger DN, editors. Physiology of intestinal circulation. New York: Raven Press, 1984: 143-51
5. Bion JF. Multiple organ failure. In: Webb AR, Shapiro MJ, Singer M, Suter PM, editors. Oxford textbook of critical care. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999: 923-6
6. Love R, Choe E, Lippton H, et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure decreases mesenteric blood flow despite normalization of cardiac output. J Trauma 1995; 39: 195-9
7. Caldwell CB, Ricotta JJ. Changes in visceral blood flow with elevated intraabdominal pressure. J Surg 1987; 43: 14-20
8. Diebel LN, Dulchavsky SA, Wilson RF. Effect of increased intraabdominal pressure on mesenteric and intestinal mucosal blood flow. J Trauma 1992; 33: 45-9
9. van den Berg PC, Jansen JR, Pinsky MR. Effect of positive pressure on venous return in volume-loaded cardiac surgical patients. J Appl Physiol 2002; 92: 1223-31
10. Tanaka S, Sagawa S, Miki K, et al. Changes in muscle sympathetic nerve activity and renal function during positive-pressure breathing in humans. Am J Physiol 1994; 266: R1220-8
11. Chernow B, Soldano S, Cook D, et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure increases plasma catecholamine levels in non-volume loaded dogs. Anaesth Intensive Care 1986; 14: 421-5
12. Cullen JJ, Ephgrave KS, Caropreso DK. Gastrointestinal myoelectric activity during endotoxemia. Am J Surg 1996; 171: 596-9
13. Aneman A, Ponten J, Fandriks L, et al. Hemodynamic, sympathetic and angiotensin II responses to PEEP ventilation before and during administration of isoflurane. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997; 41: 41-8
14. Spain DA, Kawabe T, Keelan PC, et al. Decreased alpha-adrenergic response in the intestinal microcirculation after "two-hit"; hemorrhage/resuscitation and bacteremia. J Surg Res 1999; 84: 180-5
15. Bassiouny HS. Nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia. Surg Clin North Am 1997; 77: 319-26
16. Schwartz MD, Moore EE, Moore FA, et al. Nuclear factor-kappa B is activated in alveolar macrophages from patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1996; 24: 1285-92
17. Lodato RF, Khan AR, Zembowicz MJ, et al. Roles of IL-1 and TNF in the decreased ileal muscle contractility induced by lipopolysaccharide. Am J Physiol 1999; 276: G1356-62
18. Cullen JJ, Caropreso DK, Ephgrave KS, et al. The effect of endotoxin on canine jejunal motility and transit. J Surg Res 1997; 67: 54-7
19. Nahum A, Hoyt J, Schmitz L, et al. Effect of mechanical ventilation strategy on dissemination of intratracheally instilled Escherichia coli in dogs. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 1733-43
20. Ranieri VM, Suter PM, Tortorella C, et al. Effect of mechanical ventilation on inflammatory mediators in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 282: 54-61
21. Sedman PC, Macfie J, Sagar P, et al. The prevalence of gut translocation in humans. Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 643-9
22. Heyland DK, Tougas G, King D, et al. Impaired gastric emptying in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 1996; 22: 1339-44
23. Bosscha K, Nieuwenhuijs VB, Vos A, et al. Gastrointestinal motility and gastric tube feeding in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 1998; 26: 1510-7
24. Barrientos-Vega R, Mar Sanchez-Soria M, Morales-Garcia C, et al. Prolonged sedation of critically ill patients with midazolam or propofol: impact on weaning and costs. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 33-40
25. Carrasco G, Molina R, Costa J, et al. Propofol vs midazolam in short-, medium-, and long-term sedation of critically ill patients: a cost-benefit analysis. Chest 1993; 103: 557-64
26. Kumar AN, Schwartz DE, Lim KG. Propofol-induced pancreatitis: recurrence of pancreatitis after rechallenge. Chest 1999; 115: 1198-9
27. Possidente CJ, Rogers FB, Osler TM, et al. Elevated pancreatic enzymes after extended propofol therapy. Pharmacotherapy 1998; 18: 653-5
28. Cook DJ, Fuller HD, Guyatt GH, et al. Risk factors for gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients: Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 377-81
29. Schuster DP, Rowley H, Feinstein S, et al. Prospective evaluation of the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding after admission to a medical intensive care unit. Am J Med 1984; 76: 623-30
30. Lucas CE, Sugawa C, Riddle J, et al. Natural history and surgical dilemma of "stress" gastric bleeding. Arch Surg 1971; 102: 266-73
31. Czaja AJ, McAlhany JC, Pruitt Jr BA. Acute gastroduodenal disease after thermal injury: an endoscopic evaluation of incidence and natural history. N Engl J Med 1974; 291: 925-9
32. Peura DA, Johnson LF. Cimetidine for prevention and treatment of gastroduodenal mucosal lesions in patients in an intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med 1985; 103: 173-7
33. Terdiman JP, Ostroff JW. Gastrointestinal bleeding in the hospitalized patient: a case-control study to assess risk factors, causes, and outcome. Am J Med 1998; 104: 349-54
34. Cook DJ, Reeve BK, Guyatt GH, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: resolving discordant meta-analyses. JAMA 1996; 275: 308-14
35. Cook D, Heyland D, Griffith L, et al. Risk factors for clinically important upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation: Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 2812-7
36. Gurman G, Samri M, Sarov B, et al. The rate of gastrointestinal bleeding in a general ICU population: a retrospective study. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16: 44-9
37. Silen W. Pathogenetic factors in erosive gastritis. Am J Med 1985; 79: 45-8
38. Cook D, Guyatt G, Marshall J, et al. A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation: Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 791-7
39. Zandstra DF, Stoutenbeek CP. The virtual absence of stress-ulceration related bleeding in ICU patients receiving prolonged mechanical ventilation without any prophylaxis: a prospective cohort study. Intensive Care Med 1994; 20: 335-40
40. Wilmer A, Tack J, Frans E, et al. Duoderrogastroesophageal reflux and esophageal mucosal injury in mechanically ventilated patients. Gastroenterology 1999; 116: 1293-9
41. Ibanez J, Penafiel A, Raurich JM, et al. Gastroesophageal reflux in intubated patients receiving enteral nutrition: effect of supine and semirecumbent positions. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1992; 16: 419-22
42. Orozco-Levi M, Torres A, Ferrer M, et al. Semirecumbent position protects from pulmonary aspiration but not completely from gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1387-90
43. Ferrer M, Bauer TT, Torres A, et al. Effect of nasogastric tube size on gastroesophageal reflux and microaspiration in intubated patients. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 991-4
44. Torres A, Serra-Batlles J, Ros E, et al. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 540-3
45. Dive A, Moulart M, Jonard P, et al. Gastroduodenal motility in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: a manometric study. Crit Care Med 1994; 22: 441-7
46. Dark DS, Pingleton SK. Nonhemorrhagic gastrointestinal complications in acute respiratory failure. Crit Care Med 1989; 17: 755-8
47. Montejo JC. Enteral nutrition-related gastrointestinal complications in critically ill patients: a multicenter study: The Nutritional and Metabolic Working Group of the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 1447-53
48. Pingleton SK, Hadzima SK. Enteral alimentation and gastrointestinal bleeding in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 1983; 11: 13-6
49. Raff T, Germann G, Hartmann B. The value of early enteral nutrition in the prophylaxis of stress ulceration in the severely burned patient. Burns 1997; 23: 313-8
50. Ponec RJ, Saunders MD, Kimmey MB. Neostigmine for the treatment of acute colonic pseudo-obstruction. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 137-41
51. Kelly TW, Patrick MR, Hillman KM. Study of diarrhea in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1983; 11: 7-9
52. Smith CE, Marien L, Brogdon C, et al. Diarrhea associated with tube feeding in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Nuts Res 1990; 39: 148-52
53. Jones BJ, Lees R, Andrews J, et al. Comparison of an elemental and polymeric enteral diet in patients with normal gastrointestinal function. Gut 1983; 24: 78-84
54. Liolios A, Oropello JM, Benjamin E. Gastrointestinal complications in the intensive care unit. Clin Chest Med 1999; 20: 329-45
55. Cleary RK. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment. Dis Colon Rectum 1998; 41: 1435-49
56. Jobe BA, Grasley A, Deveney KE, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis: an increasing hospital-acquired illness. Am J Surg 1995; 169: 480-3
57. Kelly CP, Pothoulakis C, LaMont IT. Clostridium difficile colitis. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 257-62
58. DeMeo M, Kolli S, Keshavarzian A, et al. Beneficial effect of a bile acid resin binder on enteral feeding induced diarrhea. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 967-71
59. Hernandez G, Velasco N, Wainstein C, et al. Gut mucosal atrophy after a short enteral fasting period in critically ill patients. J Crit Care 1999; 14: 73-7
60. Brinson RR, Kolts BE. Hypoalbuminemia as an indicator of diarrheal incidence in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1987; 15: 506-9
61. Hwang TL, Lue MC, Nee YJ, et al. The incidence of diarrhea in patients with hypoalbuminemia due to acute or chronic malnutrition during enteral feeding. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 376-8
62. Halden E, Jakobson S, Janeras L, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on cardiac output distribution in the pig. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1982; 26: 403-8
63. Kahle M, Lippert J, Willemer S, et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) ventilation on the exocrine pancreas in minipigs. Res Exp Med (Berl) 1991; 191: 309-25
64. Bredenberg CE, Paskanik AM. Relation of portal hemodynamics to cardiac output during mechanical ventilation with PEEP. Ann Surg 1983; 198: 218-22
65. Matuschak GM, Pinsky MR, Rogers RM. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on hepatic blood flow and performance. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 1377-83
66. Fujita Y. Effects of PEEP on splanchnic hemodynamics and blood volume. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1993; 37: 427-31
67. Brienza N, Revelly JP, Ayuse T, et al. Effects of PEEP on liver arterial and venous blood flows. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 504-10
68. Purcell PN, Branson RD, Hurst JM, et al. Gut feeding and hepatic hemodynamics during PEEP ventilation for acute lung injury. J Surg Res 1992; 53: 335-41
69. Risoe C, Hall C, Smiseth OA. Splanchnic vascular capacitance and positive end-expiratory pressure in dogs. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70: 818-24
70. Trager K, Radermacher P, Georgieff M. PEEP and hepatic metabolic performance in septic shock. Intensive Care Med 1996; 22: 1274-5
71. Rady MY, Kodavatiganti R, Ryan T. Perioperative predictors of acute cholecystitis after cardiovascular surgery. Chest 1998; 114: 76-84
72. Savino JA, Scalea TM, Del Guercio LR. Factors encouraging laparotomy in acalculous cholecystitis. Crit Care Med 1985; 13: 377-80
73. Roslyn JJ, Pitt HA, Mann LL, et al. Gallbladder disease in patients on long-term parenteral nutrition. Gastroenterology 1983; 84: 148-54
74. Lee SP. Pathogenesis of biliary sludge. Hepatology 1990; 12: 200S-3S
75. Savoca PE, Longo WE, Pasternak B, et al. Does visceral ischemia play a role in the pathogenesis of acute acalculous cholecystitis? J Clin Gastroenterol 1990; 12: 33-6
76. Melin MM, Sarr MG, Bender CE, et al. Percutaneous cholecystostomy: a valuable technique in high-risk patients with presumed acute cholecystitis. Br J Surg 1995; 82: 1274-7
77. Peura DA, Koretz RL. Controversies, dilemmas, and dialogues: prophylactic therapy of stress-related mucosal damage: why, which, who, and so what? Am J Gastroenterol 1990; 85: 935-7
78. Laine L. Acute and chronic gastrointestinal bleeding. In: Feldman M, Scharschmidt BF, Sleisenger MH, editors. Sleisenger & Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease. Vol. 1. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1998: 198-219
79. Bresalier RS. The clinical significance and pathophysiology of stress-related gastric mucosal hemorrhage. J Clin Gastroenterol 1991; 13: S35-43
80. Peura DA. Stress-related mucosal damage: an overview. Am J Med 1987; 83: 3-7
81. Cheung LY. Gastric mucosal blood flow: its measurement and importance in mucosal defense mechanisms. J Surg Res 1984; 36: 282-8
82. Menguy R, Desbaillets L, Masters YF. Mechanism of stress ulcer: influence of hypovolemic shock on energy metabolism in the gastric mucosa. Gastroenterology 1974; 66: 46-55
83. Skillman JJ, Gould SA, Chung RS, et al. The gastric mucosal barrier: clinical and experimental studies in critically ill and normal man, and in the rabbit. Ann Surg 1970; 172: 564-84
84. Baghaie AA, Mojtahedzadeh M, Levine RL, et al. Comparison of the effect of intermittent administration and continuous infusion of famotidine on gastric pH in critically ill patients: results of a prospective, randomized, crossover study. Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 687-91
85. Aris R, Karlstadt R, Paoletti V, et al. Intermittent intravenous pantoprazole achieves a similar onset time to pH = 4 in ICU patients as continuous infusion H2-receptor antagonist, without tolerance. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: S148 (A147)
86. 2-receptor antagonist in intensive care unit [presentation]. 31st Annual Congress of the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SSCM); 2002 Jan 26-30; San Diego (CA)
87. McCarthy DM. Sucralfate. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1017-25
88. ASHP Therapeutic guidelines on stress ulcer prophylaxis. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1999; 56: 347-79
89. du Moulin GC, Paterson DG, Hedley-Whyte J, et al. Aspiration of gastric bacteria in antacid-treated patients: a frequent cause of postoperative colonisation of the airway. Lancet 1982; I: 242-5
90. Craven DE, Steger KA, Barat LM, et al. Nosocomial pneumonia: epidemiology and infection control. Intensive Care Med 1992; 18: S3-9
91. Heyland D, Mandell LA. Gastric colonization by Gram-negative bacilli and nosocomial pneumonia in the intensive care unit patient: evidence for causation. Chest 1992; 101: 187-93
92. Bonten MJ, Gaillard CA, de Leeuw PW, et al. Role of colonization of the upper intestinal tract in the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 309-19
93. Heyland DK, Cook DJ, Schoenfeld PS, et al. The effect of acidified enteral feeds on gastric colonization in critically ill patients: results of a multicenter randomized trial: Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 2399-406
94. Driks MR, Craven DE, Celli BR, et al. Nosocomial pneumonia in intubated patients given sucralfate as compared with antacids or histamine type 2 blockers: the role of gastric colonization. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 1376-82
95. Prod'hom G, Leuenberger P, Koerfer J, et al. Nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients receiving antacid, ranitidine, or sucralfate as prophylaxis for stress ulcer: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1994; 120: 653-62
96. Tryba M. Sucralfate versus antacids or H2-antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis: a meta-analysis on efficacy and pneumonia rate. Crit Care Med 1991; 19: 942-9
97. Bonten MJ, Gaillard CA, van Tiel FH, et al. The stomach is not a source for colonization of the upper respiratory tract and pneumonia in ICU patients. Chest 1994; 105: 878-84
98. Bonten MJ, Gaillard CA, van der Geest S, et al. The role of intragastric acidity and stress ulcer prophylaxis on colonization and infection in mechanically ventilated ICU patients: a stratified, randomized, double-blind study of sucralfate versus antacids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1825-34
99. Reusser P, Zimmerli W, Scheidegger D, et al. Role of gastric colonization in nosocomial infections and endotoxemia: a prospective study in neurosurgical patients on mechanical ventilation. J Infect Dis 1989; 160: 414-21
100. de Latorre FJ, Pont T, Ferrer A, et al. Pattern of tracheal colonization during mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1028-33
101. Kollef MH. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multivariate analysis. JAMA 1993; 270: 1965-70
102. Drakulovic MB, Torres A, Bauer TT, et al. Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999; 354: 1851-8
103. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for prevention of nosocomial pneumonia. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1997; 46: 1-79
104. Lacroix J, Infante-Rivard C, Jenicek M, et al. Prophylaxis of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in intensive care units: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 1989; 17: 862-9
105. Shuman RB, Schuster DP, Zuckerman GR. Prophylactic therapy for stress ulcer bleeding: a reappraisal. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 562-7
106. Tryba M. Prophylaxis of stress ulcer bleeding: a meta-analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol 1991; 13: S44-55
107. Cook DJ, Witt LG, Cook RJ, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the critically ill: a meta-analysis. Am J Med 1991; 91: 519-27
108. Messori A, Trippoli S, Vaiani M, et al. Bleeding and pneumonia in intensive care patients given ranitidine and sucralfate for prevention of stress ulcer: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2000; 321: 1103-6
109. Koelz HR, Aeberhard P, Hassler H, et al. Prophylactic treatment of acute gastroduodenal stress ulceration: low-dose antacid treatment without and with additional ranitidine. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987; 22: 1147-52
110. Krakamp B, Rommel T, Edelmann M, et al. Prevention of stress-induced hemorrhage of the upper gastrointestinal tract in neurosurgical intensive care patients: a controlled, randomized double-blind study with ranitidine alone and in combination with pirenzepine. Med Klin 1989; 84: 133-4, 172
111. Khuroo MS, Yattoo GN, Javid G, et al. A comparison of omeprazole and placebo for bleeding peptic ulcer. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 1054-8
112. Lau JY, Sung JJ, Lee KK, et al. Effect of intravenous omeprazole on recurrent bleeding after endoscopic treatment of bleeding peptic ulcers. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 310-6
113. Ruiz-Santana S, Ortiz E, Gonzalez B, et al. Stress-induced gastroduodenal lesions and total parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: frequency, complications, and the value of prophylactic treatment: a prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med 1991; 19: 887-91
114. McIntyre AS, Thompson DG, Day S, et al. Modulation of human upper intestinal nutrient transit by a beta adrenoreceptor mediated pathway. Gut 1992; 33: 1062-70
115. Thollander M, Svensson TH, Hellstrom PM. Stimulation of beta-adrenoceptors with isoprenaline inhibits small intestinal activity fronts and induces a post-prandial-like motility pattern in humans. Gut 1997; 40: 376-80
116. Levein NG, Thorn SE, Lindberg G, et al. Dopamine reduces gastric tone in a dose-related manner. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1999; 43: 722-5
117. Dive A, Miesse C, Galanti L, et al. Effect of erythromycin on gastric motility in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 1356-62
118. Annese V, Janssens J, Vantrappen G, et al. Erythromycin accelerates gastric emptying by inducing antral contractions and improved gastroduodenal coordination. Gastroenterology 1992; 102: 823-8
119. Feighner SD, Tan CP, McKee KK, et al. Receptor for motilin identified in the human gastrointestinal system. Science 1999; 284: 2184-8
120. Poen AC, Felt-Bersma RJ, Van Dongen PA, et al. Effect of prucalopride, a new enterokinetic agent, on gastrointestinal transit and anorectal function in healthy volunteers. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1999; 13: 1493-7
121. Barone JA. Domperidone: a peripherally acting dopamine2-receptor antagonist. Ann Pharmacother 1999; 33 (4): 429-40
122. van der Spoel JI, Oudemans-van Straaten HM, Stoutenbeek CP, et al. Neostigmine resolves critical illness-related colonic ileus in intensive care patients with multiple organ failure -a prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27: 822-7
123. Child CS. Prevention of neostigmine-induced colonic activity: a comparison of atropine and glycopyrronium. Anaesthesia 1984; 39: 1083-5
124. Brinson RR, Kolts BE. Diarrhea associated with severe hypoalbuminemia: a comparison of a peptide-based chemically defined diet and standard enteral alimentation. Crit Care Med 1988; 16: 130-6
125. Heimburger DC, Geels WJ, Thiesse KT, et al. Randomized trial of tolerance and efficacy of a small-peptide enteral feeding formula versus a whole-protein formula. Nutrition 1995; 11: 360-4
126. Mowatt-Larssen CA, Brown RO, Wojtysiak SL, et al. Comparison of tolerance and nutritional outcome between a peptide and a standard enteral formula in critically ill, hypoalbuminemic patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1992; 16: 20-4
127. Dobb GJ, Towler SC. Diarrhoea during enteral feeding in the critically ill: a comparison of feeds with and without fibre. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16: 252-5
128. Hart GK, Dobb GJ. Effect of a fecal bulking agent on diarrhea during enteral feeding in the critically ill. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1988; 12: 465-8
129. Sitzmann JV, Pitt HA, Steinborn PA, et al. Cholecystokinin prevents parenteral nutrition induced biliary sludge in humans. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1990; 170: 25-31
130. McGahan JP, Lindfors KK. Acute cholecystitis: diagnostic accuracy of percutaneous aspiration of the gallbladder. Radiology 1988; 167: 669-71
131. Shuman WP, Rogers JV, Rudd TG, et al. Low sensitivity of sonography and cholescintigraphy in acalculous cholecystitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1984; 142: 531-4
132. Browning PD, McGahan JP, Gerscovich EO. Percutaneous cholecystostomy for suspected acute cholecystitis in the hospitalized patient. J Vasc Interv Radiol 1993; 4: 531-7