Hydration: Issues for the 21st century

Nutrition Reviews

Volumn 61, Issue 8, 2003, Pages 261-271

  Grandjean, Ann C ^a   Reimers, Kristin J ^a   Buyckx, Maxime E ^b  

^a Center for Human Nutrition   (United States)

^b The Coca Cola Company   (United States)

Author keywords

Dehydration; Fluid and electrolyte balance; Fluid requirements; Hydration

Indexed keywords

ATHLETE; BODY WEIGHT; DEHYDRATION; ELECTROLYTE BALANCE; FLUID BALANCE; FLUID INTAKE; HEAT ACCLIMATIZATION; HUMAN; HYDRATION; HYPONATREMIA; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; REVIEW; WATER INTOXICATION; DRINKING; FLUID THERAPY; METHODOLOGY; RISK ASSESSMENT;

DEHYDRATION; DRINKING; FLUID THERAPY; HUMANS; HYPONATREMIA; RISK ASSESSMENT; WATER INTOXICATION; WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE;

EID: 0141889045     PISSN: 00296643     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1301/nr.2003.aug.261-271     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Gisolfi C, Lamb D. Fluid homeostasis during exercise. Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine. Vol 3. Carmel, In: Benchmark Press Inc.; 1990.
2. Sawka MN, Coyle EF. Influence of body water and blood volume on thermoregulation and exercise performance in the heat. In: Holloszy J, ed. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999:167-218.
3. Valtin H, Schafer JA. Renal Function Mechanisms Preserving Fluid and Solute Balance in Health. 3rd ed. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co.; 1995.
4. Mudge G, Weiner I. Agents affecting volume and composition of body fluids. In: Goodman Gilman A, Rall T, Nies A, Taylor P, eds. Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, Inc.; 1990:682-707.
5. Singer G, Brenner B. Fluid and electrolyte disturbances. In: Fauci A, Braunwald E, Isselbacher K, et al., eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. CD-ROM. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1998.
6. Howard L. Enteral and parenteral nutrition therapy. In: Fauci A, Braunwald E, Isselbacher K, et al., eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. CD-ROM. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1998.
7. Bergmann KE, Ziegler EE, Fomon SJ. Water and renal solute load. In: Fomon SJ, ed. Infant Nutrition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1974:245-266.
8. Phillips P, Rolls B, Ledingham D, et al. Reduced thirst after water deprivation in healthy elderly men. N Engl J Med. 1984;311:753-759.
9. Alper C. Fluid and electrolyte balance. In: Wohl MG, Goodhart RS, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1968:404-424.
10. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Daily Allowances. 10 ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989.
11. Benedict FG, Root HF. Insensible perspiration: its relation to human physiology and pathology. Arch Intern Med. 1926;38:1-35.
12. Johnston M, Newburgh L. The determination of the total heat eliminated by the human being. Clin Invest. 1930;viii:147-160.
13. Levine S, Wheatley M. Respiratory metabolism in infancy and in childhood. Am J Dis Child. 1936;51:1300-1323.
14. Holliday M, Segar W. The maintenance need for water in parenteral fluid therapy. Pediatrics. 1957;19:823-832.
15. Newburgh L, Johnston M. The insensible loss of water. Physiol Rev. 1942;22:1-18.
16. Gisolfi C. Water requirements during exercise in the heat. In: Marriott B, ed. Nutritional Needs in Hot Environments. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1993:87-96.
17. Sawka MN, Montain SJ. Fluid and electrolyte balance: effects on thermoregulation in the heat. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present Knowledge in Nutrition. 8th edition. Washington, DC: ILSI Press; 2001:115-124.
18. Berdanier CD. Water. In: Berdanier CD, ed. Advanced Nutrition: Macronutrients. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2000:31-61.
19. Bland JH. Basic physiologic considerations of body water and electrolyte. Clinical Metabolism of Body Water and Electrolytes. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1963:10-53.
20. Chauliac M. Water requirements: physiology and pathology. Child Trop. 1985;158:11-19.
21. Food and Nutrition Board. Water. 7th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1968.
22. Food and Nutrition Board. Water. 8th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1974.
23. Food and Nutrition Board. Water and Electrolytes. 9th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1980.
24. Greenleaf JE, Harrison MH. Water and electrolytes. In: Layman DK, ed. Nutrition and Aerobic Exercise. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society; 1986:107-124.
25. Johnson R. Human nutritional requirements for water in long space flights. In: Helvey T, ed. Nutrition in Space and Related Waste Problems. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 1964:159-169.
26. Mitchell HH. Comparative Nutrition of Man and Domestic Animals. New York: Academic Press; 1962.
27. Robertson GL. Disorders of thirst in man. In: Ramsay DJ, Booth DA, eds. Thirst Physiological and Psychological Aspects. London: Springer-Verlag; 1991:453-477.
28. Wardlaw GM, Insel PM. Perspectives in nutrition. 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 1996.
29. Newburgh L, Johnston M, Falcon-Lesses M. Measurement of total water exchange. J Clin Invest. 1930;8:161-196.
30. Adolph EF. Regulation of body water content through water ingestion. In: Wayner MJ, ed. Thirst: First International Symposium on Thirst in the Regulation of Body Water. New York: Macmillan; 1964:5-17.
31. Ramsay DJ, Booth DA, International Life Sciences Institute. Thirst: Physiological and Psychological Aspects. London: Springer-Verlag; 1991.
32. de Castro JM. A microregulatory analysis of spontaneous fluid intake by humans: evidence that the amount of liquid ingested and its timing is mainly governed by feeding. Physiol Behav. 1988;43:705-714.
33. Adolph EF, Dill DB. Observations on water metabolism in the desert. Am J Physiol. 1938;123:369-378.
34. Pitts GC, Johnson RE, Consolazio FC. Work in the heat as affected by intake of water, salt and glucose. Am J Physiol. 1944;142:253-259.
35. Greenleaf JE. Problem: thirst, drinking behavior, and involuntary dehydration. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24:645-656.
36. Greenleaf JE. Involuntary hypohydration in man and animals: a review. Washington, DC: Scientific and Technical Information Division, National Aeronautics and Space Administration: for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office; 1966.
37. Greenleaf JE, Sargent F. Voluntary dehydration in man. J Appl Physiol. 1965;20:719-724.
38. Hubbard RW, Sandick BL, Matthew WT, et al. Voluntary dehydration and alliesthesia for water. J Appl Physiol. 1984;57:868-875.
39. Rothstein A, Adolph EF, Wills JH. Voluntary dehydration. In: Adolph EFA, ed. Physiology of Man in the Desert. New York: Interscience Publishers, Inc.; 1947:254-270.
40. Szlyk PC, Hubbard RW, Matthew WT, Armstrong LE, Kerstein MD. Mechanisms of voluntary dehydration among troops in the field. Mil Med. 1987;152:405-407.
41. Szlyk PC, Sils IV, Francesconi RP, Hubbard RW, Matthew WT. Variability in intake and dehydration in young men during a simulated desert walk. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1989;60:422-427.
42. Szlyk PC, Sils IV, Francesconi RP, Hubbard RW, Armstrong LE. Effects of water temperature and flavoring on voluntary dehdyration in men. Physiol Behav. 1989;45:639-647.
43. Rolls B. Homeostatic and non-homeostatic controls of drinking in humans. In: Arnaud MJ, ed. Hydration Throughout Life. London: John Libbey and Company Ltd.; 1998:19-28.
44. Oh MS. Water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1994:112-143.
45. Montain SJ, Sawka MN, Wenger CB. Hyponatremia associated with exercise: risk factors and pathogenesis. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2001;29:113-117.
46. Garigan TP, Ristedt DE. Death from hyponatremia as a result of acute water intoxication in an Army basic trainee. Mil Med. 1999;164:234-238.
47. O'Brien KK, Montain SJ, Corr WP, Sawka MN, Knapik JJ, Craig SC. Hyponatremia associated with overhydration in U.S. Army trainees. Mil Med. 2001;166:405-410.
48. Speedy DB, Noakes TD, Schneider C. Exercise-associated hyponatremia: a review. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2001;13:17-27.
49. Shirreffs SM. Markers of hydration status. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2000;40:80-84.
50. Walsh R, Noakes TD, Hawley JA, Dennis SC. Impaired high-intensity cycling performance time at low levels of dehydration. Int J Sports Med. 1994;15:392-398.
51. Francesconi RP, Hubbard RW, Szlyk P, et al. Urinary and hematologic indexes of hypohydration. J Appl Physiol. 1987;62:1271-1276.
52. Popowski LA, Oppliger RA, Patrick LG, Johnson RF, Kim JA, Gisolf CV. Blood and urinary measures of hydration status during progressive acute dehydration. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33:747-753.
53. Armstrong LE, Maresh CM, Castellani JW, et al. Urinary indices of hydration status. Int J Sport Nutr. 1994;4:265-279.
54. Armstrong LE, Soto JA, Hacker FT Jr, Casa DJ, Kavouras SA, Maresh CM. Urinary indices during dehydration, exercise, and rehydration. Int J Sport Nutr. 1998;8:345-355.
55. Bergeron MF, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, et al. Fluid-electrolyte balance associated with tennis match play in a hot environment. Int J Sport Nutr. 1995;5:180-193.
56. Gorelick MH, Shaw KN, Murphy KO. Validity and reliability of clinical signs in the diagnosis of dehydration in children. Pediatrics. 1997;99:E6.
57. Grandjean AC, Reimers KJ, Bannick KE, Haven MC. The effect of caffeinated, non-caffeinated, caloric and non-caloric beverages on hydration. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000;19:591-600.
58. Pollock N, Godfrey R, Reilly T. Evaluation of field measures of urine concentration. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;29:iv-300.
59. Shirreffs SM, Maughan RJ. Urine osmolality and conductivity as indices of hydration status in athletes in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30:1598-1602.
60. Yankanich J, Kenney W, Fleck S, Kraemer W. Precompetition weight loss and changes in vascular fluid volume in NCAA Division I college wrestlers. J Strength Cond Res. 1998;12:138-145.
61. Arant BJ. Fluids and electrolyte abnormalities in children. In: Kokko J, Tannen R, eds. Fluids and electrolytes. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company; 1996:819-829.
62. Weinberg AD, Minaker KL. Dehydration. Evaluation and management in older adults. Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association. JAMA. 1995;274:1552-1556.
63. Wilmore JH, Costill DL. Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1994.
64. Dauterman KW, Bennett RG, Greenough IWB, et al. Plasma specific gravity for identifying hypovolaemia. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res. 1995;13:33-38.
65. Hackeny AC, Coyne JT, Pozos R, Feith S, Seale J. Validity of urine-blood hydrational measures to assess total body water changes during mountaineering in the sub-Artic. Arct Med Res. 1995;54:69-77.
66. Lavizzo-Mourey R, Johnson J, Stolley P. Risk factors for dehydration among elderly nursing home residents. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1988;36:213-218.
67. O'Brien C, Freund BJ, Sawka MN, McKay J, Hesslink RL, Jones TE. Hydration assessment during cold-weather military field training exercises. Arct Med Res. 1996;55:20-26.
68. Zappe DH, Tankersley CG, Meister TG, Kenney WL. Fluid restriction prior to cycle exercise: effects on plasma volume and plasma proteins. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;25:1225-1230.
69. Koulmann N, Jimenez C, Regal D, et al. Use of bioelectrical impedance analysis to estimate body fluid compartments after acute variations of the body hydration level. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32:857-864.
70. Thomas BJ, Cornish BH, Ward LC, Jacobs A. Bioimpedance: is it a predictor of true water volume? Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;873:89-93.
71. Schoeller DA. Hydrometry. In: Roche AF, Heymsfield SB, Lohman TG, eds. Human Body Composition. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 1996:25-43.
72. Ellis KJ, Wong WW. Human hydrometry: comparison of multifrequency bioelectrical impedance with H20 and bromine dilution. J Appl Physiol. 1998;85:1056-1062.
73. Visser M, Gallagher D. Age-related change in body water and hydration in old age. In: Arnaud MJ, ed. Hydration Throughout Life. John Libbey Eurotext; 1998:117-125.
74. Darrow DC, Pratt EL. Fluid therapy. Relation to tissue composition and the expenditure of water and electrolyte. JAMA. 1950;143:365, 432-439.
75. Heeley AM, Talbot NB. Insensible water losses per day by hospitalized infants and children. Am J Dis Child. 1955;90:251-255.
76. Pickering DE, Winters RW. Fluid and electrolyte management in children. Ped Clin North Am. 1954;4:873-899.
77. Wallace WM. Quantitative requirements of the infant and child for water and electrolyte under varying conditions. Am J Clin Pathol. 1953;23:1133-1141.
78. Holben DH, Hassell JT, Williams JL, Helle B. Fluid intake compared with established standards and symptoms of dehydration among elderly residents of a long-term-care facility. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999;99:1447-1450.
79. Morley JE, Miller DK, Zdrodowski C, Gutierrez B, Perry III HM. Fluid intake, hydration and aging. In: Arnaud MJ, ed. Hydration throughout life. John Libbey Eurotext; 1998:107-115.
80. Sansevero AC. Dehydration in the elderly: strategies for prevention and management. Nurse Pract. 1997;22:41-47, 63.
81. Kenney WL, Chiu P. Influence of age on thirst and fluid intake. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33:1524-1532.
82. Rolls B, Phillips PA. Aging and disturbances of thirst and fluid balance. Nutr Rev. 1990;48:137-144.
83. de Castro JM. Age-related changes in natural spontaneous fluid ingestion and thirst in humans. J Gerontol Psych Sci. 1992;47:321-330.
84. Lindeman RD, Romero LJ, Liang HC, Baumgartner RN, Koehler KM, Garry PJ. Do elderly persons need to be encouraged to drink more fluids? J Geronotol Med Sci. 2000;55A:M361-M365.
85. Lowik MRH, Westenbrink S, Hulshof KFAM, Kistemaker C, Hermus JJ. Nutrition and aging: dietary intake of "apparently healthy" elderly (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System). J Am Clin Nutr. 1989;8:347-356.
86. Adolph EF. Heat exchanges, sweat formation, and water turnover. In: Adolph EF, ed. Physiology of Man in the Desert. New York: Interscience Publishers; 1947:33-43.
87. Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry. The addition of salt to drinking water. JAMA. 1945;129:131.
88. Johnson RE. Nutritional standards for men in tropical climates. Gastroenterology. 1943;1:832-840.
89. Strydom NB, Van Graan CH, Holdsworth LD. The water requirements of humans. J Occup Med. 1965;7:581-587.
90. Gamble JL. The water requirements of castaways. Proc Am Phil Soc. 1944;88:151-158.
91. Gamble JL. Physiological information gained from studies on the life raft ration. The Harvey Lectures. Lancaster: The Science Press Printing Company; 1947:247-273.
92. Buskirk ER, Mendez J. Nutrition, environment and work performance with special reference to altitude. Fed Proc. 1967;26:1760-1767.
93. Johnson RE. Water and osmotic economy on survival rations. J Am Diet Assoc. 1964;45:124-129.
94. Mohlman HT, Katchman BJ, Slonim AR. Human water consumption and excretion data for aerospace systems. Aerosp Med. 1968;39:396-402.
95. Strydom NB, Wyndham CH, Van Graan CH, Holdsworth LD, Morrison JF. The influence of water restriction on the performance of men during a prolonged march. S A Med J. 1966;40:539-544.
96. Van Reen R, Minard D, Dasler AR, Raica N Jr, Nelson RA. Nutrition of recruits during a summer habitability study. J Am Diet Assoc. 1964;45:117-123.
97. Marriott B, Institute of Medicine. Committee summary and recommendations. In: Marriott B, ed. Nutritional Needs in Hot Environments. Applications for Military Personnel in Field Operations. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1993:50.
98. MRDA. Military Recommended Dietary Allowances, AR 25-40 (185). In: Marriott BM, Institute of Medicine, Committee on Military Nutrition Research, eds. Nutritional Needs in Hot Environments. Applications for Military Personnel in Field Operations. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1993.
99. Baker-Fulco C, Patton BD, Montain SJ, Lieberman HR. Nutrition for Health and Performance, 2001: Nutritional Guidance for Military Operations in Temperate and Extreme Environments. Natick, MA: U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine; 2001.
100. Montain SJ, Latzka WA, Sawka MN. Fluid replacement recommendations for training in hot weather. Mil Med. 1999;164:502-508.
101. Armstrong LE. Caffeine, body fluid-electrolyte balance, and exercise performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002;12:189-206.
102. Casa DJ, Armstrong LE, Hillman SK, et al. National athletic trainers' association position statement: fluid replacement for athletes. J Athlet Train. 2000;35:212-224.
103. Convertino VA, Armstrong LE, Coyle EF, et al. American College of Sports Medicine. Postion stand on exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28:i-vii.
104. Epstein Y, Armstrong LE. Fluid-electrolyte balance during labor and exercise: concepts and misconceptions. Int J Sport Nutr. 1999;9:1-12.
105. Latzka WA, Montain SJ. Water and electrolyte requirements for exercise. Clin Sports Med. 1999;18:513-524.
106. Sawka MN, Francesconi RP, Young J, Pandolf KB. Influence of hydration level and body fluids on exercise performance in the heat. JAMA. 1984;252:1165-1169.
107. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1943.
108. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Daily Allowances. Washington, DC: National Research Council; 1941.
109. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances. National Research Council; 1945.
110. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Daily Allowances. Washington, DC: National Research Council; 1948.
111. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances. Washington, DC: National Research Council; 1953.
112. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances. Washington, DC: National Research Council; 1958.
113. Food and Nutrition Board. Recommended Dietary Allowances. Sixth ed. Washington, DC: National Research Council; 1964.
114. Ershow AG, Cantor KP, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Life Sciences Research Office, National Cancer Institute (U.S.), Epidemiology and Biostatistics Program. Total Water and Tapwater Intake in the United States Population-based Estimates of Quantities and Sources. Bethesda, MD: Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology; 1989.
115. Heller KE, Sohn W, Burt BA, Eklund SA. Water consumption in the United States in 1994-96 and implications for water fluoridation policy. J Public Health Dent. 1999;59:3-11.
116. United States Department of Agriculture. 1994-96 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals. Available at: http://www.barc.usda.gov/bhnrc/foodsurvey/Cd94-96.html. Accessed October 1999.
117. Bellet S, Roman L, DeCastro O, Kim K, Kershbaum A. Effect of coffee ingestion on catecholamine release. Metabolism. 1969;18:288-291.
118. Dorfman LJ, Jarvik ME. Comparative stimulant and diuretic actions of caffeine and theobromine in man. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1970;11:869-872.
119. Massey L, Wise K. The effect of dietary caffeine on urinary excretion of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in healthy young females. Nutr Res. 1984;4:43-50.
120. Neuhäuser-Berthold M, Beine S, Verwied SC, Luhrmann PM. Coffee consumption and total body water homeostasis as measured by fluid balance and bioelectrical impedance analysis. Ann Nutr Metab. 1997;41:29-36.
121. Passmore AP, Kondowe GB, Johnston GD. Renal and cardiovascular effects of caffeine: a dose-response study. Clin Sci (Lond). 1987;72:749-756.
122. Robertson D, Frölich J, Carr R, et al. Effects of caffeine on plasma renin activity, catecholamines and blood pressure. N Engl J Med. 1978;298:181-186.
123. Wemple R, Lamb D, McKeever K. Caffeine vs caffeine-free sports drinks: effects on urine production at rest and during prolonged exercise. Int J Sports Med. 1997;18:40-46.
124. Colton T, Gosselin R, Smith R. The tolerance of coffee drinkers to caffeine. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1968;9:31-39.
125. Denaro C, Brown C, Jacob PI, Benowitz N. Effects of caffeine with repeated dosing. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;40:273-278.
126. Goldstein A, Kaizer S, Whitby O. Psychotropic effects of caffeine in man. IV. Quantitative and qualitative differences associated with habituation to coffee. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1969;10:489-497.
127. Myers M, Reeves R. The effect of caffeine on daytime ambulatory blood pressure. Am J Hypertens. 1991;4:427-431.
128. Robertson D, Wade D, Workman R, Woosley RL, Oates JA. Tolerance to the humoral and hemodynamic effects of caffeine in man. J Clin Invest. 1981;67:1111-1117.
129. Eddy NB, Downs AW. Tolerance and cross-tolerance in the human subject to the diuretic effect of caffeine, theobromine and theophylline. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1928;33:167-174.
130. Grandjean AC, Reimers KJ, Haven MC, Curtis GL. The effect on hydration of two diets, one with and one without plain water. J Am Coll Nutr. 2003;22;165-173.
131. Chan J, Knutsen SF, Blix GG, Lee JW, Fraser GE. Water, other fluids, and fatal coronary heart disease: the Adventist Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155:827-833.
132. Rodgers AL. Effect of mineral water containing calcium and magnesium on calcium oxalate urolithiasis risk factors. Urol Int. 1997;58:93-99.
133. Shannon J, White E, Shattuck AL, Potter JD. Relationship of food groups and water intake to colon cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1996;5:495-502.
134. Stookey JD, Belderson PE, Russell JM, Barker ME. Relationship of food groups and water intake to colon cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;5:495-502. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:657-658.
135. Stookey JD, Belderson PE, Russell JM, Barker ME. Relationship of food groups and water intake to colon cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;5:495-502. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:657-658.
136. Wilkens LR, Kadir MM, Kolonel LN, Nomura AM, Hankin JH. Risk factors for lower urinary tract cancer: the role of total fluid consumption, nitrites and nitrosamines, and selected foods. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1996;5:161-166.
137. Mirvish SS, Grandjean AC, Moller H, et al. N-nitrosoproline excretion by rural Nebraskans drinking water of varied nitrate content. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1992;1:455-461.
138. Vena JE, Graham S, Freudenheim J, et al. Drinking water, fluid intake, and bladder cancer in western New York. Arch Environ Health. 1993;48:191-198.
139. Bruemmer B, White E, Vaughan TL, Cheney CL. Fluid intake and the incidence of bladder cancer among middle-aged men and women in a three-county area of western Washington. Nutr Cancer. 1997;29:163-168.
140. Borghi L, Meschi T, Amato F, Briganti A, Novarini A, Giannini A. Urinary volume, water and recurrences in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: a 5-year randomized prospective study. J Urol. 1996;155:839-843.
141. Embon OM, Rose. GA, Rosenbaum T. Chronic dehydration stone disease. Br J Urol. 1990;66:357-362.
142. Inouye SK. Prevention of delirium in hospitalized older patients: risk factors and targeted intervention strategies. Ann Med. 2000;32:257-263.
143. Lawlor PG, Gagnon B, Mancini IL, et al. Occurrence, causes, and outcome of delirium in patients with advanced cancer. A prospective study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:786-794.
144. Read NW, Celik AF, Katsinelos P. Constipation and incontinence in the elderly. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1995;20:61-70.
145. Ship JA, Fischer DJ. The relationship between dehydration and parotid salivary gland function in young and older healthy adults. J Geronotol Med Sci. 1997;52A:M310-M319.
146. Bitterman WA, Farhadian H, Abu SC, et al. Environmental and nutritional factors significantly associated with cancer of the urinary tract among different ethnic groups. Urol Clin North Am. 1991;18:501-508.
147. Braver DJ, Modan M, Chetrit A, Lusky A, Braf Z. Drinking, micturition habits, and urine concentration as potential risk factors in urinary bladder cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1987;78:437-440.
148. Hosking DH, Erickson SB, Van den Berg CJ, Wilson DM, Smith LH. The stone clinic effect in patients with idiopathic calcium urolithiasis. J Urol. 1983;130:1115-1118.
149. Hughes J, Norman RW. Diet and calcium stones. CMAJ. 1992;146:137-143.
150. Iguchi M, Umekawa T, Ishikawa Y, et al. Clinical effects of prophylactic dietary treatment on renal stones. J Urol. 1990;144:229-232.
151. Lax D, Eicher M, Goldberg SJ. Mild dehydration induces echocardiographic signs of mitral valve prolapse in healthy females with prior normal cardiac findings. Am Heart J. 1992;124:1533-1540.
152. Lubin F, Rozen P, Arieli B, et al. Nutritional and lifestyle habits and water-fiber interaction in colorectal adenoma etiology. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:79-85.
153. Michaud DS, Spiegelman D, Clinton SK, et al. Fluid intake and the risk of bladder cancer in men. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1390-1397.
154. Pohlabeln H, Jockel KH, Bolm-Audorff U. Non-occupational risk factors for cancer of the lower urinary tract in Germany. Eur J Epidemiol. 1999;15:411-419.
155. Slattery ML, Caan BJ, Anderson KE, Potter JD. Intake of fluids and methylxanthine-containing beverages: association with colon cancer. Int J Cancer. 1999;81:199-204.
156. Geoffroy-Perez B, Cordier S. Fluid consumption and the risk of bladder cancer: results of a multicenter case-control study. Int J Cancer. 2001;93:880-887.
157. Slattery ML, West DW, Robison LM. Fluid intake and bladder cancer in Utah. Int J Cancer. 1988;42:17-22.
158. Frequently asked questions about the DRIs. Institute of Medicine; 2002. Available at: http://www.iom.edu/iom/iomhome.nsf. Accessed November 2002.
159. Yates AA, Schlicker SA, Suitor CW. Dietary reference intakes: the new basis for recommendations for calcium and related nutrients, B vitamins, and choline. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:699-706.