Is Crohn's disease caused by a mycobacterium? Comparisons with leprosy, tuberculosis, and Johne's disease

Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 3, Issue 8, 2003, Pages 507-514

  Greenstein, Robert J ^a  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL DISEASE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BACTERIUM CULTURE; CROHN DISEASE; DIARRHEA; HUMAN; INFECTION; LEPROSY; MILK; MYCOBACTERIUM; MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM; MYCOBACTERIUM LEPRAE; MYCOBACTERIUM PARATUBERCULOSIS; PARATUBERCULOSIS; PASTEURIZATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STAINING; TUBERCULOSIS; WATER CONTAMINATION;

EID: 0042708022     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00724-2     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Dalziel TK. Chronic intestinal enteritis. BMJ 1913; 2: 1068-70.
2. Crohn BB, Ginzberg L, Oppenheimer GD. Regional ileitis. JAMA 1932; 99: 1323-28.
3. Sedlack RE, Whisnant J, Elveback LR, Kurland LT. Incidence of Crohn's disease in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1935-1975. Am J Epidemiol 1980; 112: 759-63.
4. Loftus EV Jr, Silverstein MD, Sandborn WJ, Tremaine WJ, Harmsen WS, Zinsmeister AR. Crohn's disease in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1940-1993: incidence, prevalence, and survival. Gastroenterology 1998; 114: 1161-68.
5. Kruiningen HJ Van, Freda BJ. A clustering of Crohn's disease in Mankato, Minnesota. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2001; 7: 27-33.
6. Bernstein CN, Blanchard JF, Rawsthorne P, Wajda A. Epidemiology of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis in a central Canadian province: a population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 149: 916-24.
7. Fireman Z, Grossman A, Lilos P, et al. Epidemiology of Crohn's disease in the Jewish population of central Israel, 1970-1980. Am J Gastroenterol 1989; 84: 255-58.
8. Munkholm P, Langholz E, Nielsen OH, et al. Incidence and prevalence of Crohn's disease in the county of Copenhagen, 1962-87: a sixfold increase in incidence. Scand J Gastroenterol 1992; 27: 609-14.
9. Morris DL, Montgomery SM. Early environmental factors may have role in both Crohn's disease and gastric carcinoma. BMJ 2000; 321: 1291.
10. Van Kruiningen HJ. Lack of support for a common etiology in Johne's disease of animals and Crohn's disease in humans. Inflamm Bowel Dis 1999; 5: 183-91.
11. Hubbard J, Surawicz CM. Etiological role of mycobacterium in Crohn's disease: an assessment of the literature. Dig Dis 1999; 17: 6-13.
12. Brugere-Picoux J. Crohn disease: uncertainty about the etiologic role of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Bull Acad Natl Med 1998; 182: 823-29.
13. Podolsky DK. Inflammatory bowel disease. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 417-29.
14. Firkin BG, Whitworth JA. Dictionary of medical eponyms, 1st edn. Pine Ridge, New Jersey: The Parthenon Publication Group Inc, 1990.
15. Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food. Heat resistance of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis in milk at pasteurisation temperatures [ACM486]. London: Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food, 2001. http://archive.food.gov.uk/pdf_files/papers/acm486. pdf (accessed July 2, 2003).
16. Food Safety Authority of Ireland. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis: does it contribute to Crohn's Disease? Dublin: Food Safety Authority of Ireland, 2001. http://www.fsai.ie/research/myco.pdf (accessed July 2, 2003).
17. Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food. Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis and Crohn's disease [ACM493]. London: Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food, 2001. http://archive.food.gov.uk/pdf_files/papers/acm493.pdf (accessed July 2, 2003).
18. European Union Scientific Committee on Animal Health. Possible links between Crohn's disease and paratuberculosis. Brussels: European Union Scientific Committee on Animal Health, 2001. http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scah/out38_en.pdf (accessed July 2, 2003).
19. Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food. Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: review of advice [ACM487]. London: Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food, 2001. http://archive.food.gov.uk/pdf_files/papers/acm487.pdf (accessed July 2, 2003).
20. Small PM, Fujiwara PI. Management of tuberculosis in the United States. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 189-200.
21. Crevel R van, Ottenhoff TH, van der Meer JW. Innate immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Clin Microbiol Rev 2002; 15: 294-309.
22. Farmer P. The major infectious diseases in the world - to treat or not to treat? N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 208-10.
23. Koehler CSW. Consumption, the great killer. Modern Drug Discovery 2002; 5: 47-49.
24. Mishina D, Katsel P, Brown ST, et al. On the etiology of Crohn disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93: 9816-20.
25. Le Dantec C, Duguet JP, Montiel A, et al. Chlorine disinfection of atypical mycobacteria isolated from a water distribution system. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68: 1025-32.
26. Whan LB, Grant IR, Ball HJ, et al. Bactericidal effect ofchlorine on Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in drinking water. Lett Appl Microbiol 2001; 33: 227-31.
27. Johne HA, Frothingham L. Ein eigenthumlicher fall von tuberculose beim rind [A particular case of tuberculosis in a cow]. Dtsch Zeitschr Tiermed Vergl Pathol 1895; 21: 438-54.
28. McClure HM, Chiodini RJ, Anderson DC, et al. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis infection in a colony of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides). J Infect Dis 1987; 155: 1011-19.
29. Greig A, Stevenson K, Henderson D, et al. Epidemiological study of paratuberculosis in wild rabbits in Scotland. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 1746-51.
30. Beard PM, Daniels MJ, Henderson D, et al. Paratuberculosis infection of nonruminant wildlife in Scotland. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 1517-21.
31. Williams ES, Snyder SP, Martin KL. Pathology of spontaneous and experimental infecfion of North American wild ruminants with Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Vet Pathol 1983; 20: 274-90.
32. Buergelt CD, Layton AW, Ginn PE, et al. The pathology of spontaneous paratuberculosis in the North American bison (Bison bison). Vet Pathol 2000; 37: 428-38.
33. Dukes TW, Glover GJ, Brooks BW, et al. Paratuberculosis in saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) and experimental transmission to domestic sheep. J Wildl Dis 1992; 28: 161-70.
34. Pavlik I, Bartl J, Dvorska L, et al. Epidemiology of paratuberculosis in wild ruminants studied by restriction fragment length polymorphism in the Czech Republic during the period 1995-1998. Vet Microbiol 2000; 77: 231-51.
35. Weber A, Gurke R, Bauer K, Schreyer K. Bacterial studies on the occurrence of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in fecal samples of zoo ruminants. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr 1992; 105: 161-64.
36. Kennedy DJ, Benedictus G. Control of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis infection in agricultural species. Rev Sci Tech 2001; 20: 151-79.
37. Gutknecht K. Dire warnings about Johne's disease. A wake up call to the dairy industry? Wisconsin Agriculturist 1997; December: 8-15.
38. Vaarten J. Paratuberculosis program in the Netherlands. Animal husbandry most important weapon in prevention and therapy of paratuberculosis. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd 2001; 126: 738-39.
39. Obasanjo IO, Grohu YT, Mohammed HO. Farm factors associated with the presence of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis infection in dairy herds on the New York State Paratuberculosis Control Program. Prev Vet Med 1997; 32: 243-51.
40. Sweeney RW. Transmission of paratuberculosis. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 1996; 12: 305-12.
41. Grant IR, O'Riordan LM, Ball HJ, Rowe MT. Incidence of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in raw sheep and goats' milk in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Vet Microbiol 2001; 79: 123-31.
42. Corti S, Stephan R. Detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis specific IS900 insertion sequences in bulk-tank milk samples obtained from different regions throughout Switzerland. BMC Microbiol 2002; 2: 15.
43. Millar D, Ford J, Sanderson J, et al. IS900 PCR to detect Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in retail supplies of whole pasteurized cows' milk in England and Wales. Appl Environ Microbiol 1996; 62: 3446-52.
44. Collins MT. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis: a potential food-borne pathogen? J Dairy Sci 1997; 80: 3445-48.
45. Meylan M, Rings DM, Shulaw WP, et al. Survival of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and preservation of immunoglobulin G in bovine colostrum under experimental conditions simulating pasteurization. Am J Vet Res 1996; 57: 1580-85.
46. Sung N, Collins MT. Thermal tolerance of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998; 64: 999-1005.
47. Grant IR. Does Mycobacterium paratuberculosis survive current pasteurization conditions? Appl Environ Microbiol 1998; 64: 2760-61.
48. Grant IR, Ball HJ, Rowe MT. Isolation of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis from milk by immunomagnetic separation. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998; 64: 3153-58.
49. Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food. Preliminary results from the national study on the microbiological quality and heat processing of cow's milk: Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) [ACM485]. London: Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Food, 2001. http://archive.food.gov.uk/pdf_files/papers/acm485.pdf (accessed July 2, 2003).
50. Naser SA, Schwartz D, Shafran I. Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis from breast milk of Crohn's disease patients. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 1094-95.
51. Green EP, Tizard MLV, Moss MT, et al. Sequence and characterization of IS900, an insertion element identified human Crohn's disease isolates of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Nucl Acids Res 1989; 17: 9063-73.
52. Richter E, Wessling J, Lugering N, et al. Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in a patient with HIV, Germany. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8: 729-31.
53. Paratuberculosis Awareness and Research Association. CDC Dispatch - German researchers warn HIV-positive individuals that inadequately pasteurized milk could cause Crohn's. http://www.crohns.org/media/pr020724.htm (accessed July 9, 2003).
54. Hermon-Taylor J, Barnes N, Clarke C, Finlayson C. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis cervical lymphadenitis, followed five years later by terminal ileitis similar to Crohn's disease. BMJ 1998; 316: 449-53.
55. Barksdale WL. Mycobacterium. Bacteriol Rev 1977; 41: 217-372.
56. Chiodini RJ, Kruiningin HJ Van, Thayer WJ Jr, Coutu J. Spheroplastic phase of mycobacteria isolated from patients with Crohn s disease. J Clin Microbiol 1986; 24: 357-63.
57. Markesich DC, Graham DY, Yoshimura HH. Progress in culture and subculture of spheroplasts and fastidious acid-fast bacilli isolated from intestinal tissues. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 1600-03.
58. Gitnick G, Collins J, Beaman B, et al. Preliminary report on isolation of mycobacteria from patients with Crohn's disease. Dig Dis Sci 1989; 34: 925-32.
59. Wall S, Kunze ZM, Saboor S, et al. Identification of spheroplast-like agents isolated from tissues of patients with Crohn's disease and control tissues by polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31: 1241-45.
60. Chiodini RJ. Crohn's disease and the mycobacterioses: a review and comparison of two disease entities. Clin Microbiol Rev 1989; 2: 90-117.
61. Moss MT, Sanderson JD, Tizard MLV, et al. Polymarase chain reaction detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium subsp silvaticum in long term cultures from Crohn's disease and control tissues. Gut 1992; 33: 1209-13.
62. Chiodini RJ, Kruiningen HJ Van, Merkal RS, et al. Characteristics ofan unclassified Mycobacterium species isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. J Clin Microbiol 1984; 20: 966-71.
63. Schwartz D, Shafran II, Romero C, et al. Use of short-term culture for identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in tissue from Crohn's disease patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2000; 6: 303-07.
64. Moss MT, Green EP, Tizard ML, et al. Specific detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis by DNA hybridisation with a fragment of the insertion element IS900. Gut 1991; 32: 395-98.
65. Naser SA, Hulten K, Shafran I, et al. Specific seroreactivity of Crohn's disease patients against p35 and p36 antigens of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vet Microbiol 2000; 77: 497-504.
66. Hulten K, Karttunen TJ, El-Zimaity HM, et al. Identification of cell wall deficient forms of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in paraffin embedded tissues from animals with Johne's disease by in situ hybridization. J Microbiol Methods 2000; 42: 185-95.
67. Sanna E, Woodall CJ, Watt NJ, et al. In situ-PCR for the detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA in paraffin-embedded tissues. Eur J Histochem 2000; 44: 179-84.
68. Sechi LA, Mura M, Tanda F, et al. Identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in biopsy specimens from patients with Crohn's disease identified by in situ hybridization. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 4514-17.
69. Ryan P, Bennett MW, Aarons S, et al. PCR detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in Crohn's disease granulomas isolated by laser capture microdissection. Gut 2002; 51: 665-70.
70. Naser SA, Shafran I, Schwartz D, et al. In situ identification of mycobacteria in Crohn's disease patient tissue using confocal scanning laser microscopy. Mol Cell Probes 2002; 16: 41-48.
71. Chiodiui RJ. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 1987; 25: 796-801.
72. Whittington RJ, Marsh I, Turner MJ, et al. Rapid detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in clinical samples from ruminants and in spiked environmental samples by modified BACTEC 12B radiometric culture and direct confirmation by IS900 PCR. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 701-07.
73. Stewart-Tull DES. Mycobacterium leprae - the bacteriologist's enigma. In: Ratledge C, Stanford J, eds. The biology of the mycobacteria, vol I: physiology, identification, and classification, 1st edn. New York: Academic Press, 1982: 273-307.
74. Grant IR, Ball HJ, Rowe MT. Effect of high-temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurization on milk containing low numbers of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Lett Appl Microbiol 1998; 26: 166-70.
75. Chiba M, Fukushima T, Horie Y, et al. No Mycobacterium paratuberculosis detected in intestinal tissue, including Peyer's patches and lymph follicles, of Crohn's disease. J Gastroenterol 1998; 33: 482-87.
76. Collins DM, Cavaignac S, Lisle GW de. Use of four DNA insertion sequences to characterize strains of the Mycobacterium avium complex isolated from animals. Mol Cell Probes 1997; 11: 373-80.
77. Isola B Dell, Poyart C, Goulet O, et al. Detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis by polymerase chain reaction in children with Crohn's disease. J Infect Dis 1994; 169: 449-51.
78. Fidler HM, Thurrell W, Johnson NM, et al. Specific detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA associated with granulomatous tissue in Crohn's disease. Gut 1994; 35: 506-10.
79. Whittington R, Marsh I, Choy E, Cousins D. Polymorphisms in IS1311, an insertion sequence common to Mycobacterium avium and M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis, can be used to distinguish between and within these species. Mol Cell Probes 1998; 12: 349-58.
80. Kanazawa K, Haga Y, Funakoshi O, et al. Absence of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA in intestinal tissues from Crohn's disease by nested polymerase chain reaction. J Gastroenterol 1999; 34: 200-06.
81. Gan H, Ouyang Q, Bu H. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in the intestine of patients with Crohn's disease. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 1997; 36: 228-30.
82. Lisby G, Andersen J, Engback K, Binder V. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in intestinal tissue from patients with Crohn's disease demonstrated by a nested primer polymerase chain reaction. Scand J Gastroenterol 1994; 29: 923-29.
83. Suenaga K, Yokoyama Y, Okazaki K, Yamamoto Y. Mycobacteria in the intestine of Japanese patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 76-80.
84. Murray A, Oliaro J, Schlup MM, Chadwick VS. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and inflammatory bowel disease: frequency distribution in serial colonoscopic biopsies using the polymerase chain reaction. Microbios 1995; 83: 217-28.
85. Erasmus DL, Victor TC, Eeden PJ van, et al. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Crohn's disease. Gut 1995; 36: 942.
86. Sanderson JD, Moss MT, Tizard MLV, Hermon-Taylor J. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA in Crohn's disease tissue. Gut 1992; 33: 890-96.
87. Millar DS, Withey SJ, Tizard MLV, et al. Solid-phase hybridization capture of low-abundance target DNA sequences: application to the polymerase chain reaction detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium subsp silvaticum. Anal Biochem 1995; 226: 325-30.
88. Al-Shamali M, Khan I, Al-Nakib B, et al. A multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA in Crohn's disease tissue. Scand J Gastroenterol 1997; 32: 819-23.
89. Frank TS, Cook SM. Analysis of paraffin sections of Crohn's disease for Mycobacterium paratuberculosis using polymerase chain reaction. Mod Pathol 1996; 9: 32-35.
90. Riggio MP, Gibson J, Lennon A, et al. Search for Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA in orofacial granulomatosis and oral Crohn's disease tissue by polymerase chain reaction. Gut 1997; 41: 646-50.
91. Rowbotham DS, Mapstone NP, Trejdosiewicz LK, et al. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA not detected in Crohn's disease tissue by fluorescent polymerase chain reaction. Gut 1995; 37: 660-67.
92. Dumonceau JM, Gossum A Van, Adler M, et al. No Mycobacterium paratuberculosis found in Crohn's disease using polymerase chain reaction. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 41: 421-26.
93. Clarkston WK, Presti ME, Petersen PF, et al. Role of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in Crohn's disease: a prospective, controlled study using polymerase chain reaction. Dis Colon Rectum 1998; 41: 195-99.
94. Kallinowski F, Wassmer A, Hofmann MA, et al. Prevalence of enteropathogenic bacteria in surgically treated chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Hepatogastroenterology 1998; 45: 1552-58.
95. Cellier C, Beenhouwer H De, Berger A, et al. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium subsp. silvaticum DNA cannot be detected PCR Crohn's disease tissue. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1998; 22: 675-78.
96. Greenstein RJ. Constitutive attachment of murine erythroleukemia cell histone depleted DNA loops to nuclear scaffolding is found in the β-major but not the alpha-1 globin gene. DNA 1988; 7: 601-07.
97. Paleoforensics SR. Ice Man warms up for European scientists. Science 2000; 289: 2253-54.
98. Morell V. Mummy settles TB antiquity debate. Science 1994; 263: 1686-87.
99. Klug G. The role of mRNA degradation in the regulated expression of bacterial photosynthesis genes. Mol Microbiol 1993; 9: 1-7.
100. Ross J. Control of messenger RNA stability in higher eukaryotes. Trends Genet 1996; 12: 171-75.
101. Hulten K, El-Zimaity HM, Karttunen TJ, et al. Detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Crohn's diseased tissues by in situ hybridization. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 1529-35.
102. Koch R. Die Aetiologie der Tuberkulose. Mittbeilungen Kaiserlichen Gesundbeitsamte 1884; 2: 1-88.
103. Brown ST, Mishina D, Katsel PL, Greenstein RJ. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in Crohn's disease: epiphenomenon or etiological agent? Proceedings of the Fifth International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis.; 1996. East Providence: Evergreen Press, 1996.
104. Coloe P, Wilks CR, Lightfoot D, Tosolini FA. Isolation of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in Crohn's Disease. Aust Microbiol 1986; 7: 188A.
105. Thorel MF. Relationship between Mycobacterium avium, M. paratuberculosis and mycobacteria associated with Crohn's disease. Ann Rech Vet 1989; 20: 417-29.
106. Haagsma J, Mulder CJJ, Eger A, Tygat CNJ. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis isole chez des patients attients de maladie de Crohn. Resultant preliminaires. Acta Endos 1991; 21: 255-60.
107. Chiodini RJ, Kruiningen HJ Van, Thayer WR, et al. Possible role of mycobacteria in inflammatory bowel disease. 1. An unclassified Mycobacterium species isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. Dig Dis Sci 1984; 29: 1073-79.
108. van Kruiningen HJ, Chiodini RJ, Thayer WR, et al. Experimental disease in infant goats induced by a Mycobacterium isolated from a patient with Crohn's disease. A preliminary report. Dig Dis Sci 1986; 31: 1351-60.
109. Veazey RS, Taylor HW, Horohov DW, Krahenbuhl JL, Oliver III JL, Snider III TG. Histopathology of C57BL/6 mice inoculated orally with Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. J Comp Pathol 1995; 113: 75-80.
110. Hines IIME, Kreeger JM, Herron AJ. Mycobacterial infections of animals: pathology and pathogenesis. Lab Anim Sci 1995; 45: 334-51.
111. Ward M, McManus JP. Dapsone in Crohn's disease. Lancet 1975; 1: 1236-37.
112. Jarnerot G, Rolny P, Wickbom G, Alemayehu G. Antimycobacterial therapy ineffective in Crohn's disease after a year. Lancet 1989; 1: 164-65.
113. Hampson S, Parker M, Saverymutter S, et al. Results ofquadruple antimycobacterial chemotherapy in 17 Crohn's disease patients completing six months treatment. Gastroenterology 1988; 94: 170.
114. Picciotto A, Gesu GP, Schito GC, et al. Antimycobacterial chemotherapy in two cases of inflammatory bowel disease. Lancet 1988; 1: 536-37.
115. Schultz M, Rieder H, Hersh T, Riepe S. Remission of Crohn's disease with antibacterial chemotherapy. Lancet 1987; 2: 1391-92.
116. Warren J, Rees H, Cox T. Remission of Crohn's disease with tuberculosis chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 182-80.
117. Elliott P, Burnham W, Berghouse L, et al. Sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine therapy in Crohn's disease. Digestion 1982; 23: 132-34.
118. Shaffer J, Hughes S, Linaker B, et al. Controlled trial of rifampicin and ethamobutol in Crohn's disease. Gut 1984; 25: 203-25.
119. Thayer WR, Coutu JA, Chiodini RJ, van Kruiningen HJ. Use of rifabutin and streptomycin in the therapy of Crohn's disease. In: MacDermott RP, ed. Inflammatory bowel disease: current status and future approach. New York: Elsevier Science, 1988: 565-68.
120. Wirostko E, Johnson L, Wirostko B. Crohn's disease: rifampin treatment of the ocular and gut disease. Hepatogastroenterology 1987; 34: 90-93.
121. Afdhal NH, Long A, Lennon J, et al. Controlled trial of antimycobacterial therapy in Crohn's disease. Clofazimine versus placebo. Dig Dis Sci 1991; 36: 449-53.
122. Prantera C, Kohn A, Mangiarotti R, et al. Antimycobacterial therapy in Crohn's disease: results of a controlled, double-blind trial with a multiple antibiotic regimen. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 513-18.
123. Prantera C, Zannoni F, Scribano ML, et al. An antibiotic regimen for the treatment of active Crohn's disease: a randomized, controlled clinical trial of metronidazole plus ciprofloxacin. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 328-32.
124. Swift GL, Srivastava ED, Stone R, et al. Controlled trial of anti-tuberculous chemotherapy for two years in Crohn's disease. Gut 1994; 35: 363-68.
125. Thomas GA, Swift GL, Green JT, et al. Controlled trial of antituberculous chemotherapy in Crohn's disease: a five year follow up study. Gut 1998; 42: 497-500.
126. Rastogi N, Goh KS, Labrousse V. Activity of clarithromycin compared with those of other drugs against Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and further enhancement of its extracellular and intracellular activities by ethambutol. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 2843-46.
127. Gui GP, Thomas PR, Tizard ML, et al. Two-year-outcomes analysis of Crohn's disease treated with rifabutin and macrolide antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39: 393-400.
128. Douglass A, Cann PA, Bramble MG. An open pilot study of antimicrobial therapy in patients with unresponsive Crohn's disease. Gut 2000; 46 (suppl): A11.
129. Shafran I, Kugler L, EI-Zaatari FA, et al. Open clinical trial of rifabutin and clarithromycin therapy in Crohn's disease. Dig Liver Dis 2002; 34: 22-28.
130. Borody TJ, Leis S, Warren EF, Surace R. Treatment of severe Crohn's disease using antimycobacterial triple therapy - approaching a cure? Dig Liver Dis 2002; 34: 29-38.
131. McFadden JJ, Kunze ZM, Portaels F, et al. Epidemiological and genetic markers, virulence factors and intracellular growth of Mycobacterium avium in AIDS. Res Microbiol 1992; 430: 423-30.
132. Hugot JP, Chamaillard M, Zouali H, et al. Association of NOD2 leucine-rich repeat variants with susceptibility to Crohn's disease. Nature 2001; 411: 599-603.
133. Ogura Y, Binnen D, Inohara N. A frameshift mutation in NOD2 associated with a susceptibility to Crohn's disease. Nature 2001; 411: 603-06.
134. Hampe J, Cuthbert A, Croucher PJ, et al. Association between insertion mutation in NOD2 gene and Crohn's disease in German and British populations. Lancet 2001; 357: 1925-28.
135. Rioux JD, Daly MJ, Silverberg MS, et al. Genetic variation in the 5q31 cytokine gene cluster confers susceptibility to Crohn disease. Nat Genet 2001; 29: 223-28.
136. Hansen GA. Undersogelser angaende spedalskhedens arsager. Nor Mag Laegevidenskaben 1874; 4: 1-88.
137. Yamamura M, Uyemura K, Deans RJ, et al. Defining protective responses to pathogens: cytokine profiles in leprosy lesions. Science 1991; 254: 277-79.
138. Dombal FT De, Burton I, Goligher JC. Recurrence of Crohn's disease after primary excisional surgery. Gut 1971; 12: 519-27.
139. Greenstein AJ, Lachman P, Sachar DB, et al. Perforating and non-perforating indications for repeated operations in Crohn's disease: evidence for two clinical forms. Gut 1988; 29: 588-92.
140. Sakanoue Y, Horai T, Okamoto T, et al. Lipocortin-present perforating and lipocortin-absent nonperforating Crohn's disease. Am J Surg 1992; 164: 341-44.
141. Greenstein RJ, Greenstein AJ. Is there clinical, epidemiological and molecular evidence for two forms of Crohn's disease. Mol Med Today 1995; 1: 343-48.
142. Gilberts ECAM, Greenstein AJ, Katsel PL, et al. Molecular evidence for two forms of Crohn disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 12721-24.
143. Chen WS, Su WJ, Wang HS, et al. Large bowel tuberculosis and possible influencing factors for surgical prognosis: 30 years' experience. World J Surg 1997; 21: 500-04.
144. Anand BS, Nanda R, Sachdev GK. Response of tuberculous stricture to antituberculous treatment. Gut 1988; 29: 62-69.
145. Bellamy R, Beyers N, McAdam KP, et al. Genetic susceptibility to tuberculosis in Africans: a genome-wide scan. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000; 97: 8005-09.
146. Targan SR, Hanauer SB, van Deventer SJ, et al. A short-term study of chimeric monoclonal antibody cA2 to tumor necrosis factor alpha for Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1029-35.
147. Present DH, Rutgeerts P, Targan S, et al. Infliximab for the treatment of fistulas in patients with Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 1398-405.
148. Holland SM. Cytokine therapy of mycobacterial infections. Adv Intern Med 2000; 45: 431-52.