Neurogenic and humoral vasoconstriction in acute pulmonary thromboembolism

Anesthesia and Analgesia

Volumn 97, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 341-354

  Stratmann, Greg ^a,b   Gregory, George A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UCSF Medical Center at Parnassus   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABCIXIMAB; ACETYLCHOLINE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID 3 (NITROXYMETHYL)PHENYL ESTER; ADRENALIN; CATECHOLAMINE; CLOPIDOGREL; EPTIFIBATIDE; HEPARIN; ICOSANOID; INOTROPIC AGENT; ISOPRENALINE; LAMIFIBAN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; NEUROHORMONE; NORADRENALIN; ORBOFIBAN; PHENYLEPHRINE; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN ANTAGONIST; SIBRAFIBAN; THROMBIN; THROMBOXANE A2; THROMBOXANE RECEPTOR; TICLOPIDINE; TIROFIBAN; TRIFLAVIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASODILATOR AGENT;

ACUTE DISEASE; ADJUVANT THERAPY; ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; CLINICAL FEATURE; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG RECEPTOR BINDING; EMBOLECTOMY; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; FIBRINOLYSIS; HEART RIGHT VENTRICLE FAILURE; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HORMONE ACTION; HUMAN; HYPOXIA; LEUKOCYTE ACTIVATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUNG ARTERY PRESSURE; LUNG EMBOLISM; LUNG VASOCONSTRICTION; MORTALITY; NERVE CONDUCTION; NEUTROPHIL; NONHUMAN; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; OXYGEN SATURATION; OXYGEN SUPPLY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULMONARY ARTERY; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; REPERFUSION INJURY; REVIEW; SYMPATHECTOMY; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATION; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM;

EID: 0042347896     PISSN: 00032999     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000068983.18131.F0     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Wood K. Major pulmonary embolism: review of a pathophysiologic approach to the golden hour of hemodynamically significant pulmonary embolism. Chest 2002;121:877-905.
2. Soloff L, Rodman T. Acute pulmonary embolism. Am Heart J 1967;74:829-47.
3. van Beek E, Kuijer P, Buller H, et al. The clinical course of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:2593-8.
4. Lualdi J, Goldhaber S. Right ventricular dysfunction after acute pulmonary embolism: pathophysiologic factors, detection, and therapeutic implications. Am Heart J 1995;130:1276-82.
5. Capan L, Miller S. Monitoring for suspected pulmonary embolism. Anesthesiol Clin North America 2001;19:673-703.
6. Bageant W, Rapee L. The treatment of pulmonary embolus by stellate block. Anesthesiology 1947;8:500-5.
7. Faxon H, Flynn J, Anderson R. Stellate block as an adjunct to the treatment of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 1951;244: 586-90.
8. Pinelli G, Mertes PM, Carteaux J, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide as an adjunct to pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Ann Thorac Surg 1996;61:227-9.
9. Schenk P, Mittermayer C, Ratheiser K. Inhaled nitric oxide in a patient with severe pulmonary embolism. Ann Emerg Med 1999;33:710-4.
10. Smith G, Smith A. The role of serotonin in experimental pulmonary embolism. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1955;101:691-700.
11. Malik A, Johnson A. Role of humoral mediators in the pulmonary vascular response to pulmonary embolism. In: Weir E, Reeves J, eds. Pulmonary vascular physiology and pathophysiology. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989:445-68.
12. Alpert J, Godfredsen J, Ockene I, et al. Pulmonary hypertension secondary to minor pulmonary embolism. Chest 1978;73: 795-7.
13. Moser K, Guisan M, Bartimmo E. Resolution rates of experimental venous thromboemboli. In: Moser K, Stein M, eds. Pulmonary thromboembolism. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1971:104-13.
14. Nelson J, Smith J. The pathologic physiology of pulmonary embolism: a physiologic discussion of the vascular reactions following pulmonary arterial obstruction by emboli of varying size. Am Heart J 1959;58:916-32.
15. Lewis J, Bastanfar M, Gabriel F, et al. Right heart function and prediction of respiratory morbidity in patients undergoing pneumonectomy with moderately severe cardiopulmonary dysfunction. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;108:169-75.
16. Elliott G. Pulmonary physiology during pulmonary embolism. Chest 1992;101:S163-71.
17. Widdicombe J. Reflex mechanisms in pulmonary thromboembolism. In: Moser K, Stein M, eds. Pulmonary thromboembolism. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1971:178-86.
18. Stein M, Levy S. Reflex and humoral responses to pulmonary embolism. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1974;17:167-74.
19. Chen H, Kou Y. Mechanisms of stimulation of vagal pulmonary C fibers by pulmonary air embolism in dogs. J Appl Physiol 1997;82:765-71.
20. Chen H, Kou YR. Vagal and mediator mechanisms underlying the tachypnea caused by pulmonary air embolism in dogs. J Appl Physiol 2000;88:1247-53.
21. Katz S, Horres AD. Medullary respiratory neuron response to pulmonary emboli and pneumothorax. J Appl Physiol 1972;33: 390-6.
22. Comroe JJ, Van Lingen B, Stroud RC, Roncoroni A. Reflex and direct cardiopulmonary effects of 5-OH-tryptamine (Serotonin): their possible role in pulmonary embolism and coronary thrombosis. Am J Physiol 1953;173:379-86.
23. Hyman A. Autonomic control of the pulmonary circulation. In: Weir E, Reeves J, eds. Pulmonary vascular physiology and pathophysiology. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989:291-319.
24. Aviado DM, Aviado DG. The Bezold-Jarisch reflex: a historical perspective of cardiopulmonary reflexes. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001;940:48-58.
25. Hickcox C, Tovell R, Rashkind R, et al. The stellate ganglion: its significance in practice. Anesthesiology 1943;4:150-9.
26. Jahn U, Waurick R, van Aken H. Thoracic but not lumbar, epidural anesthesia improves cardiopulmonary function in ovine pulmonary embolism. Anesth Analg 2001;93:1460-5.
27. Mc Lean M. Endothelin-1 and serotonin: mediators of primary and secondary pulmonary hypertension? J Lab Clin Med 1999; 134:105-14.
28. Salvi S. Alpha1-adrenergic hypothesis for pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1999;115:1708-19.
29. Haberberger R, Schemann M, Sann H, Kummer W. Innervation pattern of guinea pig pulmonary vasculature depends on vascular diameter. J Appl Physiol 1997;82:426-34.
30. Vlahakes G, Truly K, Hoffman J. The pathophysiology of failure in acute right ventricular hypertension: hemodynamics and biochemical correlations. Circulation 1981;63:87-95.
31. Angle MR, Molloy DW, Penner B, et al. The cardiopulmonary and renal hemodynamic effects of norepinephrine in canine pulmonary embolism. Chest 1989;95:1333-7.
32. Rich S, Gubin S, Hart K. The effects of phenylephrine on right ventricular performance in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1990;98:1102-6.
33. Chand N, Altura B. Acetylcholine and bradykinin relax intrapulmonary arteries by acting on endothelial cells: role in lung vascular diseases. Science 1981;213:1376-9.
34. Schmeck J, Heller A, Groschler A, et al. Impact of endothelin-1 in endotoxin-induced pulmonary vascular reactions. Crit Care Med 2000;28:2851-7.
35. Furchgott R. Introduction to EDRF research. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993;22:S1-2.
36. Smulders Y. Pathophysiology and treatment of haemodynamic instability in acute pulmonary embolism: the pivotal role of pulmonary vasoconstriction. Cardiovasc Res 2000;48:23-33.
37. Blaise G. Endothelium at rest. In: Spiess B, ed. The relationship between coagulation, inflammation and endothelium: a pyramid towards outcome. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2000:31-78.
38. Harlan J, Callahan K. Role of hydrogen peroxide in the neutrophil-mediated release of prostacyclin from cultured endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 1984;74:442-8.
39. Thomas D, Gurewich V, Ashford T. Platelet adherence to thromboemboli in relation to pathogenesis and treatment of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 1966;274:953-6.
40. Thomas D, Vane J. 5-hydroxytryptamine in the circulation of the dog. Nature 1967;216:315.
41. de Wet C. Metabolic functions of the lung. Anesthesiol Clin North America 1998;16:181-99.
42. Utsunomiya T, Krausz MM, Shepro D, Hechtman HB. Prostaglandin control of plasma and platelet 5-hydroxytryptamine in normal and embolized animals. Am J Physiol 1981;241: H766-71.
43. Murciano JC, Harshaw D, Neschis DG, et al. Platelets inhibit the lysis of pulmonary microemboli. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2002;282:L529-39.
44. Benumof J. Mechanism of decreased blood flow to atelectatic lung. J Appl Physiol 1979;46:1047-8.
45. Tanus-Santos JE, Gordo WM, Udelsmann A, et al. Nonselective endothelin-receptor antagonism attenuates hemodynamic changes after massive pulmonary air embolism in dogs. Chest 2000;118:175-9.
46. Deuel T, Huang J. Platelet-derived growth factor: structure, function and roles in normal and transformed cells. J Clin Invest 1984;74:669-76.
47. Selheim F, Holmsen H, Vassbotn F. Platelet-derived growth factor inhibits platelet activation in heparinized whole blood. Thromb Res 1999;95:185-96.
48. Bryckaert MC, Rendu F, Tobelem G, Caen J. PDGF modifies phosphoinositide metabolism and inhibits aggregation and release in human platelets. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1986; 135:52-7.
49. Coughlin SR, Moskowitz MA, Zetter BR, et al. Platelet-dependent stimulation of prostacyclin synthesis by platelet-derived growth factor. Nature 1980;288:600-2.
50. Vassbotn FS, Havnen OK, Heldin CH, Holmsen H. Negative feedback regulation of human platelets via autocrine activation of the platelet-derived growth factor alpha-receptor. J Biol Chem 1994;269:13874-9.
51. Yudelman I. Indices of fibrinogen proteolysis and platelet activation during the resolution of pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost 1987;57:11-6.
52. Glusa E, Paintz M, Bretschneider E. Relaxant and contractile responses of porcine pulmonary arteries to thrombin and thrombin receptor activating peptides. Semin Thromb Hemost 1996;22:261-5.
53. Perlman M, Johnson A, Jubiz W, Malik A. Lipoxygenase products induce neutrophil activation and increase endothelial permeability after thrombin-induced pulmonary microembolism. Circ Res 1989;64:62-73.
54. Watanabe M, Yagi M, Omata M, et al. Stimulation of neutrophil adherence to vascular endothelial cells by histamine and thrombin and its inhibition by PAF antagonists and dexamethasone. Br J Pharmacol 1991;102:239-45.
55. Davey M, Lüscher E. Actions of thrombin and other coagulant and proteolytic enzymes on blood platelets. Nature 1967;216: 857-8.
56. Cu T-K, Hung D, Wheaton V, Coughlin SR. Molecular cloning of a functional thrombin receptor reveals a novel proteolytic mechanism of receptor activation. Cell 1991;64:1057-68.
57. Coughlin S. Thrombin signaling and protease-activated receptors. Nature 2000;407:258-64.
58. Sato T, Sawada S, Tsuda Y, et al. The mechanism of thrombin-induced prostacyclin synthesis in human endothelial cells with reference to the gene transcription of prostacyclin-related enzymes and Ca2+ kinetics. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 1999; 41:173-82.
59. Feinmark SJ, Cannon PJ. Endothelial cell leukotriene C4 synthesis results from intercellular transfer of leukotriene A4 synthesized by polymorphonuclear leukocytes. J Biol Chem 1986; 261:16466-72.
60. Prescott S, Zimmerman G, McIntyre T. Platelet-activating factor. J Biol Chem 1990;265:17381-4.
61. Zimmerman G, McIntyre T, Prescott S. Thrombin stimulates the adherence of neutrophils to human endothelial cells in vitro. J Clin Invest 1985;76:2235-46.
62. Clavijo LC, Carter MB, Matheson PJ, et al. Platelet-activating factor and bacteremia-induced pulmonary hypertension. J Surg Res 2000;88:173-80.
63. Sanderud J, Saugstad O. Oxygen radicals induce pulmonary vasoconstriction in pigs without activating plasma proteolytic cascade systems. Eur Surg Res 1993;25:137-45.
64. Steimle CN, Guynn TP, Morganroth ML, et al. Neutrophils are not necessary for ischemia-reperfusion lung injury. Ann Thorac Surg 1992;53:64-72; Discussion 73.
65. Sakuma T, Takahashi K, Ohya N, et al. Ischemia-reperfusion lung injury in rabbits: mechanisms of injury and protection. Am J Physiol 1999;276:L137-45.
66. Wan S, LeClerc J, Vincent J. Inflammatory response to cardiopulmonary bypass: mechanisms involved and possible therapeutic strategies. Chest 1997;112:676-92.
67. Deleted in proof.
68. Horgan MJ, Ge M, Gu J, et al. Role of ICAM-1 in neutrophil-mediated lung vascular injury after occlusion and reperfusion. Am J Physiol 1991;261:H1578-84.
69. Palace GP, Del Vecchio PJ, Horgan MJ, Malik AB. Release of tumor necrosis factor after pulmonary artery occlusion and reperfusion. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:143-7.
70. Sekido N, Mukaida N, Harada A, et al. Prevention of lung reperfusion injury in rabbits by a monoclonal antibody against interleukin-8. Nature 1993;365:654-7.
71. Boyle E, Morgan E, Verrier E. The endothelium disturbed: the procoagulant response. In: Spiess B, ed. The relationship between coagulation, inflammation and endothelium: a pyramid towards outcome. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2000:79-89.
72. Ereth M. A contemporary view of coagulation. In: BD S, ed. The relationship between coagulation, inflammation and endothelium: a pyramid towards outcome. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2000:129-45.
73. Fisher A, Al-Mehdi A, Manevich Y. Shear stress and endothelial cell activation. Crit Care Med 2002;30:S192-7.
74. Horgan M, Wright S, Malik A. Antibody against leukocyte integrin (CD18) prevents reperfusion-induced lung vascular injury. Am J Physiol 1990;259:L315-9.
75. Ward P, Johnson K, Till G. Oxygen radicals and microvascular injury of lungs and kidney. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl 1986; 548:79-85.
76. Ge M, Ryan T, Lum H, Malik A. Fibrinogen degradation product fragment D increases endothelial monolayer permeability. Am J Physiol 1991;261:L283-9.
77. Mombouli J, Vanhoutte PM. Endothelial dysfunction: from physiology to therapy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1999;31:61-74.
78. Shepard JM, Moon DG, Sherman PF, et al. Platelets decrease albumin permeability of pulmonary artery endothelial cell monolayers. Microvasc Res 1989;37:256-66.
79. Tranzer J, Baumgartner H. Filling gaps in the vascular endothelium with blood platelets. Nature 1967;216:1126-8.
80. Schmeck J, Koch T, Patt B, et al. The role of endothelin-1 as a mediator of the pressure response after air embolism in blood perfused lungs. Intensive Care Med 1998;24:605-11.
81. Mohazzab-HK, Fayngersh R, Wolin M. Nitric oxide inhibits pulmonary artery catalase and H2O2-associated relaxation. Am J Physiol 1996;271:H1900-6.
82. Holm P, Franco-Cereceda A. Haemodynamic influence and endothelin-1 plasma concentrations by selective or nonselective endothelin receptor antagonists in the pig in vivo. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl 1999;165:163-8.
83. Holm P, Liska J, Franco-Cereceda A. The endothelin ETB receptor antagonist BQ-788 reduces the pulmonary vasodilator effect of endothelin-1 during acute hypoxia in pigs. Eur J Pharmacol 1997;323:83-7.
84. Curzen NP, Mitchell JA, Jourdan KB, et al. Endothelin-1-induced contraction of pulmonary arteries from endotoxemic rats is attenuated by the endothelin-A receptor antagonist, BQ123. Crit Care Med 1996;24:2007-13.
85. Strachan FE, Spratt JC, Wilkinson IB, et al. Systemic blockade of the endothelin-B receptor increases peripheral vascular resistance in healthy men. Hypertension 1999;33:581-5.
86. Pang CY, Zhang J, Xu H, et al. Role and mechanism of endothelin-B receptors in mediating ET-1-induced vasoconstriction in pig skin. Am J Physiol 1998;275:R1066-74.
87. Sakai S, Miyauchi T, Hara J, et al. Hypotensive effect of endothelin-1 via endothelin-B-receptor pathway on pulmonary circulation is enhanced in rats with pulmonary hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2000;36:S95-8.
88. Tanus-Santos JE, Sampaio RC, Hyslop S, et al. Endothelin ET(A) receptor antagonism attenuates the pressor effects of nicotine in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2000;396:33-7.
89. Dschietzig T, Laule M, Alexiou K, et al. Coronary constriction and consequent cardiodepression in pulmonary embolism are mediated by pulmonary big endothelin and enhanced in early endothelial dysfunction. Crit Care Med 1998;26:510-7.
90. Ignarro LJ, Buga GM, Wood KS, et al. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987;84:9265-9.
91. Furchgott R. Role of endothelium in responses of vascular smooth muscle. Circ Res 1983;53:557-73.
92. Kadowitz PJ, Chapnick BM, Feigen LP, et al. Pulmonary and systemic vasodilator effects of the newly discovered prostaglandin, PGI2. J Appl Physiol 1978;45:408-13.
93. Gries A, Bottiger BW, Dorsam J, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide inhibits platelet aggregation after pulmonary embolism in pigs. Anesthesiology 1997;86:387-93.
94. Arnal JF, Dinh-Xuan AT, Pueyo M, et al. Endothelium-derived nitric oxide and vascular physiology and pathology. Cell Mol Life Sci 1999;55:1078-87.
95. Vaage J. Intravascular platelet aggregation and pulmonary injury. Ann NY Acad Sci 1982;384:301-18.
96. Palevsky HI. Therapeutic options for severe pulmonary hypertension. Clin Chest Med 1997;18:595-609.
97. Barst RJ, Rubin LJ, McGoon MD, et al. Survival in primary pulmonary hypertension with long-term continuous intravenous prostacyclin. Ann Intern Med 1994;121:409-15.
98. Olschewski H, Walmrath D, Schermuly R, et al. Aerosolized prostacyclin and iloprost in severe pulmonary hypertension. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:820-4.
99. Selig W, Noonan T, Kern D, Malik A. Pulmonary microvascular responses to arachidonic acid in isolated perfused guinea pig lung. J Appl Physiol 1986;60:1972-9.
100. Fitzpatrick TM, Alter I, Corey EJ, et al. Cardiovascular responses to PGI2 (prostacyclin) in the dog. Circ Res 1978;42: 192-4.
101. Kitamura K, Kangawa K, Kawamoto M, et al. Adrenomedullin: a novel hypotensive peptide isolated from human pheochromocytoma. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1993;192:553-60.
102. Sugo S, Minamino N, Kangawa K, et al. Endothelial cells actively synthesize and secrete adrenomedullin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994;201:1160-6.
103. Sugo S, Minamino N, Shoji H, et al. Interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor and lipopolysaccharide additively stimulate production of adrenomedullin in vascular smooth muscle cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995;207:25-32.
104. Yamamoto K, Ikeda U, Sekiguchi H, Shimada K. Plasma levels of adrenomedullin in patients with mitral stenosis. Am Heart J 1998;135:542-9.
105. Pinto A, Sekizawa K, Yamaya M, et al. Effects of adrenomedullin and calcitonin gene-related peptide on airway and pulmonary vascular smooth muscle in guinea-pigs. Br J Pharmacol 1996;119:1477-83.
106. Nishio K, Akai Y, Murao Y, et al. Increased plasma concentrations of adrenomedullin correlate with relaxation of vascular tone in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 1997;25: 953-7.
107. Stefanec T. Endothelial apoptosis: could it have a role in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease? Chest 2000;117:841-54.
108. Test ST, Lampert MB, Ossanna PJ, et al. Generation of nitrogen-chlorine oxidants by human phagocytes. J Clin Invest 1984;74:1341-9.
109. Vanden Hoek T. Preconditioning and postresuscitation injury. Crit Care Med 2002;30:S172-5.
110. Collard C, Gelman S. Pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and prevention of ischemia-reperfusion injury. Anesthesiology 2001;94:1133-8.
111. Cross CE, Halliwell B, Borish ET, et al. Oxygen radicals and human disease. Ann Intern Med 1987;107:526-45.
112. Horgan M, Lum H, Malik A. Pulmonary edema after pulmonary artery occlusion and reperfusion. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;140:1421-8.
113. Yamagishi H, Yamashita C, Okada M. Preventive influence of inhaled nitric oxide on lung ischemia-reperfusion injury. Surg Today 1999;29:897-901.
114. Mecham R. Conference summary: biology and pathobiology of the lung circulation. Chest 1998;114:106S-11S.
115. Dalen JE, Banas JS Jr, Brooks HL, et al. Resolution rate of acute pulmonary embolism in man. N Engl J Med 1969;280:1194-9.
116. Layish D, Tapson V. Pharmacologic hemodynamic support in massive pulmonary embolism. Chest 1997;111:218-24.
117. Tapson V. Pulmonary embolism. In: Goldman, ed. Cecil textbook of medicine. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2000:443.
118. Bottiger BW, Motsch J, Dorsam J, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide selectively decreases pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance following acute massive pulmonary microembolism in piglets. Chest 1996;110:1041-7.
119. Estagnasie P, Le Bourdelles G, Mier L, et al. Use of inhaled nitric oxide to reverse flow through a patent foramen ovale during pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:757-9.
120. Crerar-Gilbert A, Boots R. Use of inhaled nitric oxide in pulmonary embolism. Anaesth Intensive Care 1999;27:412-4.
121. Webb S, Stott S, van Heerden P. The use of inhaled aerosolized prostacyclin in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension secondary to pulmonary embolism. Intensive Care Med 1996;22: 353.
122. Guidelines on diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: task force on pulmonary embolism ESoC. Eur Heart J 2000;21:1301-36.
123. Arcasoy S, Kreit J. Thrombolytic therapy of pulmonary embolism: a comprehensive review of current evidence. Chest 1999;115:1695-707.
124. Bauer EP, Laske A, von Segesser LK, et al. Early and late results after surgery for massive pulmonary embolism. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1991;39:353-6.
125. Doerge HC, Schoendube FA, Loeser H, et al. Pulmonary embolectomy: review of a 15-year experience and role in the age of thrombolytic therapy. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1996;10: 952-7.
126. Stulz P, Schlapfer R, Feer R, et al. Decision making in the surgical treatment of massive pulmonary embolism. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1994;8:188-93.
127. Kieny R, Charpentier A, Kieny M. What is the place of pulmonary embolectomy today? J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 1991;32: 549-54.
128. Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, Williams DM, Wakefield TW. Long-term experience with transvenous catheter pulmonary embolectomy. J Vasc Surg 1993;18:450-7; Discussion 457-8.
129. Fava M, Loyola S, Flores P, Huete I. Mechanical fragmentation and pharmacologic thrombolysis in massive pulmonary embolism. J Vasc Interv Radiol 1997;8:261-6.
130. Miczoch J, Tucker A, Weir E, et al. Platelet-mediated pulmonary hypertension and hypoxia during pulmonary microembolism: reduction by platelet inhibition. Chest 1978; 74:648-53.
131. Vernon S. Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists and low-molecular weight heparin in acute coronary syndromes. Cardiol Clin 2001;19:235-52.
132. Mazur W, Kaluza G, Kleiman N. Antiplatelet therapy for treatment of acute coronary syndromes. Cardiol Clin 1999;17: 345-57.
133. Prevention of pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis with low dose aspirin: Pulmonary Embolism Prevention (PEP) trial. Lancet 2000;355:1295-302.
134. Momi S, Emerson M, Paul W, et al. Prevention of pulmonary thromboembolism by NCX 4016, a nitric oxide-releasing aspirin. Eur J Pharmacol 2000;397:177-85.
135. del Soldato P, Sorrentino R, Pinto A. NO-aspirins: a class of new anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic agents. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1999;20:319-23.
136. Abu-Hajir M, Mazzeo A. The pharmacology of antithrombotic and antiplatelet agents. Anesthesiol Clin North America 1999; 17:749-86.
137. Sheu JR, Yen MH, Hung WC, et al. Triflavin inhibits platelet-induced vasoconstriction in de-endothelialized aorta. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997;17:3461-8.
138. Steudel W, Hurford W, Zapol WM. Inhaled nitric oxide: basic biology and clinical applications. Anesthesiology 1999;91: 1090-121.
139. Meyer K, Love R, Zimmerman J. The therapeutic potential of nitric oxide in lung transplantation. Chest 1998;113:1360-71.
140. Sambrano GR, Weiss EJ, Zheng YW, et al. Role of thrombin signalling in platelets in haemostasis and thrombosis. Nature 2001;413:74-8.
141. Kaye AD, Nossaman BD, Ibrahim IN, et al. Analysis of thromboxane receptor-mediated responses in the feline pulmonary vascular bed. Crit Care Med 1995;23:164-70.
142. Cook JJ, Sitko GR, Bednar B, et al. An antibody against the exosite of the cloned thrombin receptor inhibits experimental arterial thrombosis in the African green monkey. Circulation 1995;91:2961-71.
143. Garcia-Szabo R, Johnson A, Malik A. Thromboxane increases pulmonary vascular resistance and transvascular fluid and protein exchange after pulmonary microembolism. Prostaglandins 1988;35:707-21.
144. Thompson JA, Millen JE, Glauser FL, Hess ML. Role of 5-HT2 receptor inhibition in pulmonary embolization. Circ Shock 1986;20:299-309.
145. Huval WV, Mathieson MA, Stemp LI, et al. Therapeutic benefits of 5-hydroxytryptamine inhibition following pulmonary embolism. Ann Surg 1983;197:220-5.
146. Huet Y, Brun-Buisson C, Lemaire F, et al. Cardiopulmonary effects of ketanserin infusion in human pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:114-7.