Classification of race and ethnicity: Implications for public health

Annual Review of Public Health

Volumn 24, Issue , 2003, Pages 83-110

  Mays, Vickie M ^a   Ponce, Ninez A ^b   Washington, Donna L ^c   Cochran, Susan D ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Classification bias; Cultural competence; Public health statistics

Indexed keywords

CLASSIFICATION; CULTURAL FACTOR; DECISION MAKING; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HEALTH SURVEY; HUMAN; MEASUREMENT; MEDICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK MANAGEMENT; SOCIAL ASPECT; STANDARD; TECHNIQUE; UNITED STATES; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EPIDEMIOLOGY; ETHNIC GROUP; MEDICAL INFORMATICS; POPULATION RESEARCH; RACE; VITAL STATISTICS;

BIAS (EPIDEMIOLOGY); CENSUSES; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; CULTURAL DIVERSITY; ETHNIC GROUPS; HEALTH SERVICES ACCESSIBILITY; HUMANS; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLIC HEALTH INFORMATICS; UNITED STATES; VITAL STATISTICS;

EID: 0038504024     PISSN: 01637525     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.24.100901.140927     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Amaro H, Zambrana RE. 2000. Crillo, mestizo, mulato, latinegro, indigena, white or black? The US Hispanic/Latino population and multiple responses in the 2000 census. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1724-27
2. Am. Cancer Soc. Updates Prostate Cancer Screening Guidelines. http://www.cancer.org/eprise/main/docroot/MED/content/ MED_2_1X_American_Cance_Society_Updates_Prostate_Cancer_Screen ing_Guidelines 1997
3. Anderson MJ. 1988. The American Census: a Social History. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
4. Ayanian JZ, Weissman JS, Chasan-Taber S, Epstein AM. 1999. Quality of care by race and gender for congestive heart failure and pneumonia. Med. Care 37(12):1260-69
5. Becker G, Beyene Y, Newsom EM, Rodgers DV. 1998. Knowledge and care of chronic illness in three ethnic minority groups. Fam. Med. 30(3)173-78
6. Bennett C. 2002. Race and ethnicity issues in Census 2000. Presented to the Comm. Natl. Health Care Disparities, Washington, DC, Jan. 28
7. Bird JA, McPhee SJ, Ha NT, Le B, Davis T, Jenkins CN. 1998. Opening pathways to cancer screening for Vietnamese-American women: Lay health workers hold a key. Prev. Med. 27(6)821-29
8. Bloche MG. 2001. Race and discretion in American medicine. Yale J. Health Policy Law Ethics 1:95-131
9. Brach C, Fraser I. 2000. Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? A review and conceptual model. Med. Care Res. Rev. 57(Suppl.1):181-217
10. Braun L. 2002. Race, ethnicity and health: Can genetics explain disparities? Perspect. Biol. Med. 45(2):159-74
11. Brown SA, Hanis CL. 1999. Culturally competent diabetes education for Mexican Americans: the Start County Study. Diabetes Educ. 25(2):226-36
12. Burhansstipanov L, Satter DE. 2000. Office of Management and Budget racial categories and implications for American Indians and Alaska Natives. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1720-23
13. Bureau of the Census. 2000. State and County Quick Facts. http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06000.html
14. Calif. Health Interview Survey. http://www.chis.ucla.edu
15. Campbell MK, Demark-Wahnefried W, Symons M, Kalsbeek WD, Dodds J, et al. 1999. Fruit and vegetable consumption and prevention of cancer: the Black Churches United for Better Health project. Am. J. Public Health 89(9):1390-96
16. Canto JG, Allison JJ, Kiefe CI, Fincher C, Farmer R, et al. 2000. Relation of race and sex to the use of reperfusion therapy in Medicare beneficiaries with acute myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 342(15):1094-100
17. Carlisle DM, Leake BD, Shapiro MF. 1997. Racial and ethnic disparities in the use of cardiovascular procedures: associations with type of health insurance. Am. J. Public Health 87(2):263-67
18. Carrese JA, Rhodes LA. 2000. Bridging cultural differences in medical practice: the case of discussing negative information with Navajo patients. J. Intern. Med. 15(2):92-96
19. Cochran SD, de Leeuw J, Mays VM. 1995. Optimal scaling of HIV-related sexual risk behaviors in ethnically diverse homosexually active men. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 63(2):270-79
20. Cooper RS. 1986. The biological concept of race and its application to public health and epidemiology. J. Health Polit. Policy Law 11(1):97-116
21. Cooper RS. 1994. A case study in the use of race and ethnicity in public health surveillance. Public Health Rep. 109(1):46-52
22. Cooper RS, Kennelly JF, Durazo-Arvizu R, Oh HJ, Kaplan G, Lynch J. 2001. Relationship between premature mortality and socioeconomic factors in black and white populations of US metropolitan areas. Public Health Rep. 116(5):464-73
23. Cooper-Patrick L, Gallo JJ, Gonzales JJ, Vu HT, Powe NR, et al. 1999. Race, gender, and partnership in the patient-physician relationship. JAMA 282:583-89
24. Corkery E, Palmer C, Foley ME, Schechter CB, Frisher L, Roman SH. 1997. Effect of a bicultural community health worker on completion of diabetes education in a Hispanic population. Diabet. Care 20(3):254-57
25. Corrin WJ, Cook TD. 1999. Spanning racial boundaries: multiracial adolescents and their families, peers, schools, and neighborhoods. Working Paper 99-120, Inst. for Policy Res., Northwestern Univ.
26. Crawford K, Fisher WH, McDermeit M. 1998. Racial/ethnic disparities in admissions to public and private psychiatric inpatient settings: the effect of managed care. J. Policy Admin. Ment. Health 26(2):101-9
27. Dana RH. 2002. Mental health services for African Americans: a cultural/racial perspective. Cult. Diversity Ethn. Minor. Psychol. 8(1):3-18
28. Dasanayake AP, Li Y, Wadhawan S, Kirk K, Bronstein J, Childers NK. 2002. Disparities in dental service utilization among Alabama Medicaid children. Commun. Dent. Oral Epidemiol. 30(5):369-76
29. Davey Smith G. 2000. Learning to live with complexity: ethnicity, socioeconomic position, and health in Britain and the United States. Am. J. Public Health 90:1694-98
30. Duster T. 1990. Backdoor to Eugenics. New York: Routledge
31. Edmonston B, Schultze C. 1995. Modernizing the US Census. Panel on Census Requirements in the Year 2000 and Beyond, Comm. Natl. Stat., Comm. Behav. Soc. Sci. Educ., Natl. Res. Counc. Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
32. Ell K, Haywood LJ, Sobel E, deGuzman M, Blumfield D, Ning J. 1994. Acute chest pain in African Americans: factors in the delay in seeking emergency care. Am. J. Public Health 84(6):965-70
33. Farley R. 1996. The New American Reality: Who We Are, How We Got Here, Where We Are Going. New York: Russell Sage Found.
34. Farley R. 1999. Racial issues: recent trends in residential patterns and intermarriage. In Diversity and Its Discontents: Cultural Conflict and Common Ground in Contemporary American Society, ed. NJ Smelser, JC Alexander, pp. 86-128. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
35. Farley R. 2000. Racial identities in the census of 2000: What did respondents do when they had the opportunity to identify with multiple races ? Paper presented at the Conf. Multiraciality: How Will the New Census Data be Used? Jerome Levy Econ. Inst., Bard Coll. Sept.
36. Federal Register Notice. 1997. Recommendations from the Interagency Committee for the review of the racial and ethnic standards to the Office of Management and Budget concerning changes to the standards for the classification of federal data on race and ethnicity. http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/race.html
37. Fiscella K, Franks P, Doescher MP, Saver BG. 2002. Disparities in health care by race, ethnicity, and language among the insured: findings from a national sample. Med. Care 40(1):52-56
38. Fouad MN, Kiefe CI, Bartolucci AA, Burst NM, Ulene V, Harvey MR. 1997. A hypertension control program tailored to unskilled and minority workers. Ethn. Dis. 7(3):191-99
39. Frank R. 2001. A reconceptualization of the role of biology in contributing to race/ethnic disparities in health outcomes. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 20:441-55
40. Friedman DJ, Cohen BB, Averbach AR, Norton JM. 2000. Race/ethnicity and OMB Directive 15: implications for state public health practice. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1714-19
41. Fullilove MT. 1998. Comment: Abandoning 'race' as a variable in public health research: an idea whose time has come. Am. J. Public Health 88(9):1297-99
42. George M. 2001. The challenge of culturally competent health care: applications for asthma. Heart Lung 30(5):392-400
43. Gibbs JT, Hines AM. 1992. Negotiating ethnic identity: issues for black-white biracial adolescents. See Ref. 68, pp. 223-38
44. Gillborn D. 1995. Racism, identity, and modernity: pluralism, moral antiracism and plastic ethnicity. Int. Stud. Soc. Educ. 5:3-23
45. Goldman B. 1993. Not Just Prosperity: Achieving Sustainability with Environmental Justice. Washington, DC: Natl. Wildlife Fed.
46. Goldstein JR, Morning AJ. 2000. The multiple race population of the United States: issues and estimates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97(11):6230-35
47. Gwynn RC, Thurston GD. 2001. The burden of air pollution: impacts among racial minorities. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl. 4):501-6
48. Hannan EL, van Ryn M, Burke J, Stone D, Kumar D, et al. 1999. Access to coronary artery bypass surgery by race/ethnicity and gender among patients who are appropriate for surgery. Med. Care 37(1):68-77
49. Harris DR. 2000. Does it matter how we measure ? Implications of definitions of race on the characteristics of mixed-race youth. Presented at Conf. Multiraciality: How Will the New Census Data be Used? Jerome Levy Econ. Inst. Bard Coll. Sept.
50. Harris DR. 2002. Does it matter how we measure? Racial classification and the characteristics of multiracial youth. In The New Race Question, ed. J Perlmann, M Waters. New York: Russell Sage Found.
51. Harris MI. 1999. Racial and ethnic differences in health insurance coverage for adults with diabetes. Diabet. Care 22(10):1679-82
52. Horowitz CR, Colson KA, Hebert PL. 2002. Disparities in access to healthy foods for people with diabetes. J. Intern. Med. 17(Suppl. 1):161-62
53. Horowitz CR, Davis MH, Palermo AG, Vladeck BC. 2000. Approaches to eliminating sociocultural disparities in health. Health Care Financ. Rev. 21(4):57-74
54. Hunter CP. 2000. Epidemiology, stage at diagnosis, and tumor biology of breast carcinoma in multiracial and multiethnic populations. Cancer 88(Suppl. 5):1193-202
55. Jackson SA, Anderson RT, Johnson NJ, Sorlie PD. 2000. The relation of residential segregation to all-cause mortality: a study in black and white. Am. J. Public Health 90(4):615-17
56. Jones CP, LaVeist TA, Lillie-Blanton M. 1991. "Race" in the epidemiologic literature: an examination of the American Journal of Epidemiology, 1921-1990. Am. J. Epidemiol. 134:1079-84
57. Kalmijn M. 1993. Trends in Black/White intermarriage. Soc. Forces 72:119-46
58. Kaugman JS. 1999. How inconsistencies in racial classification demystify the race construct in public health statistics. Epidemiology 10(2):101-3
59. Krieger N. 1999. Embodying inequality: a review of concepts, measures and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. Int. J. Health Services 29:295-352
60. Krieger N. 1999. Questioning epidemiology: objectivity, advocacy, and socially responsible science. Am. J. Public Health 89:1151-53
61. Krieger N. 2000. Refiguring "race": epidemiology, racialized biology, and biological expressions of race relations. Int. J. Health Serv. 30(1):211-16
62. Krieger N. 2001. Commentary: society, biology, and the logic of social epidemiology. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30:44-46
63. Krieger N, Chen JT, Waterman PD, Soobader M-J, Subramanian SV, Carson R. 2002. Geocoding and monitoring US socioeconomic inequalities in mortality and cancer incidence: Does choice of area-based measure and geographic level matter? - The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project. Am. J. Epidemiol. 156:471-82
64. Krieger N, Chen JT, Waterman PD, Soobader M-J, Subramanian SV, Carson R. 2002. Choosing area-based socioeconomic measures to monitor socialinequalities in low birthweight and childhood lead poisoning - The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project (US). J. Epidemiol. Community Health. In press
65. Krieger N, Fee E. 1996. Measuring social inequalities in health in the United States: an historical review, 1900-1950. Int. J. Health Serv. 26:391-418
66. Krieger N, Sidney S. 1996. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: the CARDIA study of young black and white adults. Am. J. Public Health 86:1370-78
67. Krieger N, Williams D, Moss N. 1997. Measuring social class in US public health research: concepts, methodologies, and guidelines. Annu. Rev. Public Health 18:341-78
68. LaVeist TA. 1994. Beyond dummy variables and sample selection: What health services researchers ought to know about race as a variable. Health Serv. Res. 29(1):1-16
69. Laws MB, Heckscher RA. 2002. Racial and ethnic identification practices in public health data systems in New England. Public Health Rep. 117:50-117
70. Lee S. 2001. Using the new racial categories in the 2000 Census. Annie E. Casey Found. Popul. Ref. Bur., Baltimore, MD
71. Lee S, Mountain J, Koenig BA. 2001. The meanings of "race" in the new genomics: implications for health disparities research. Yale J. Health Policy Law Ethics 1:33-75
72. Levine DM, Becker DM, Bone LR. 1992. Narrowing the gap in health stares of minority populations: a community-academic medical center partnership. Am. J. Prev. Med. 8(5):319-23
73. Lewis R. 2002. Race and the clinic: good science? Scientist 16(4):16
74. Lieu TA, Lozano P, Finkelstein JA, Chi FW, Jensvold NG, et al. 2002. Racial/ethnic variation in asthma status and management practices among children in managed medicaid. Pediatrics 109(5):857-65
75. Lin SS, Kelsey JL. 2000. Use of race and ethnicity in epidemiologic research: concepts, methodological issues, and suggestions for research. Epidemiol. Rev. 22(2):187-201
76. Lucas JW. 2000. Changes in race differentials: the impact of the new OMB standards on health data in the NHIS. Presented at the Am. Public Health Assoc. Meet., Boston, MA
77. Mayberry RM, Mili F, Ofili E. 2000. Racial and ethnic differences in access to medical care. Med. Care Res. Rev. 57(Suppl. 1):108-45
78. Mays VM. 1995. Black women, work, stress, and perceived discrimination: the Focused Support Group Model as an intervention for stress reduction. Cult. Divers. Mental Health 1(1):53-65
79. Mays VM, Cochran SD. 1998. Racial discrimination and health outcomes in African Americans. Proc. 27th Public Health Conf. Rec. Stat. Natl. Comm. Vital Health Stat. 47th Annu. Symp. Washington, DC: USDHHS
80. Mays VM, Cochran SD. 2001. Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay and bisexual adults in the United States. Am. J. Public Health 91:1869-76
81. Mays VM, Cochran SD, Sullivan JG. 2000. Health care for African American and Hispanic women: report on perceived health status, access to care, and utlization patterns. In Minority Health in America: Findings and Policy Implications from the Commonwealth Fund Minority Health Survey, ed. CJR Hogue, MA Hargraves, KS Collins, pp. 97-123. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
82. Mays VM, Coleman LM, Jackson JS. 1996. Race-based perceived discrimination, employment status, and job stress in a national sample of Black women: implications for health outcomes. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 1(3):319-29
83. Mays VM, Lucas YW, Cochran SD. 2002. Thinking about race and ethnicity in population-based studies of health. In Race and Research in Focus: Perspectives on Minority Participation in Health Studies, ed. B Beech, M Goodman. Washington, DC: Am. Public Health Assoc. In press
84. McLaughlin LA, Braun KL. 1998. Asian and Pacific Islander cultural values: considerations for health care decision making. Health Soc. Work 23(2):116-26
85. Messer L, Steckler A, Dignan M. 1999. Early detection of cervical cancer among Native American women: a qualitative supplement to a quantitative study. Health Educ. Behav. 26(4):547-62
86. Morello-Frosch R, Pastor M Jr, Porras C, Sadd J. 2002. Environmental justice and regional inequality in Southern California: implications for future research. Environ. Health Perspect. 110(Suppl. 2):149-54
87. Int. Hum. Genome Sequen. Consort. 2001. Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature, The Human Genome Project. 409(6822):860-921
88. Navarro AM, Serm KL, McNicholas LJ, Kaplan RM, Roppe B, Campo MC. 1998. Por La Vida model intervention enhances use of cancer screening tests among Latinas. Am. J. Prev. Med. 15(1):32-41
89. Nickens HW. 1991. The health status of minority populations in the United States. West. J. Med. 155(1):27-32
90. Nobles M, 2000. History counts: a comparative analysis of racial/color categorization in US and Brazilian censuses. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1738-45
91. Off. Manag. Budget. 1977. Directive Number 15: Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting. Washington, DC: Off. Fed. Stat. Policy Standards, US Dep. Comm.
92. Off. Manag. Budget. 1997. Revisions to the standards for classification of Federal data on race and ethnicity. Fed. Regist. 62:58781-90
93. Off. Manag. Budget. 2000. Provisional guidance on the implementation of the 1997 standards for federal data on race and ethnicity. Accessed at http://www.whitehouse.gov/OMB/inforeg/index.html #SP
94. Okamura JY. 1981. Situation ethnicity. Ethnic Racial Stud. 4:452-56
95. Otten MW, Teutsch SM, Williamson DF, Marks JS. 1990. The effect of known risk factors on the excess mortality of Black adults in the United States. JAMA 263:845-50
96. Pappas G, Queen S, Hadden W, Fisher G. 1993. The increasing disparity in mortality between socioeconomic groups in the United States, 1960 and 1986. N. Engl. J. Med. 329(2):103-9
97. Parker JD, Lucas J. 2000. Multiple Race Reporting among children in a national health survey. Ethn. Dis. 10(2):262-74
98. Parker JD, Makuc DM. 2002. Methodologcial implications of allocating multiple-race data to single-race categories. Health Serv. Res. 37:203-13
99. Ponce N. 2002. The California Health Interview Survey: measuring multi-racial health: counts, rates and artifacts. Presented at Calif. Pan-Ethn. Health Netw.: Health Policy Implic. Multi-Race Categ., Oakland
100. Qian Z. 1997. Breaking the racial barriers: variations in interracial marriage between 1980 and 1990. Demography 34:263-76
101. Qian Z. 1999. Who intermarries? Education, nativity, region, and interracial marriage, 1980 and 1990. J. Comp. Fam. Stud. 30:579-97
102. Raczynski JM, Taylor H, Cutter G, Hardin M, Rappaport N, Oberman A. 1994. Diagnoses, symptoms, and attribution of symptoms among Black and White inpatients admitted for coronary heart disease. Am. J. Public Health 84:951-56
103. Int. Hum. Genome Sequen. Consort. 2001. A physical map of the human genome. Nature, The Human Genome Project. 409(6822):934-41
104. Root MPP. 1992. Back to the drawing board: methodological issues in research on multicultural people. In Racially Mixed People in America, ed. MPP Root, pp. 181-89. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
105. Root MPP. 1996. The multicultural experience: racial borders as a significant frontier in race relations. In The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as the New Frontier, ed. MPP Root, pp. xiii-xxviii. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
106. Rothman KJ, Greenland S. 1998. Modern Epidemiology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Raven. 2nd ed.
107. Sambamoorthi U, Moynihan PJ, McSpiritt E, Crystal S. 2001. Use of protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors among Medicaid beneficiaries with AIDS. Am. J. Public Health 91(9):1474-81
108. Schulman KA, Berlin JA, Harless W, Kerner JF, Sistrunk S, et al. 1999. The effect of race and sex on physicians' recommendations for cardiac catheterization. N. Engl. J. Med. 340(8):618-26
109. Shaw-Taylor Y, Benesch B. 1998. Workforce diversity and cultural competence in healthcare. J. Cult. Diversity 5(4):138-46
110. Sondik EJ, Lucas JW, Madans JH, Smith SS. 2000. Race/ethnicity and the 2000 census: implications for public health. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1709-13
111. Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, eds. 2002. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Comm. Underst. Elimin. Racial Ethn. Disparities Health Care, Board Health Sci. Policy. Washington, DC: Inst. Med.
112. Smith ED, Merritt SL, Patel MK. 1997. Church-based education: an outreach program for African Americans with hypertension. Ethn. Health 2(3):243-53
113. Srinivasan S, Guillermo T. 2000. Toward improved health: disaggregating Asian American and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander data. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1731-34
114. Swift EK. 2002. Guidance for the National Healthcare Disparities Report. Comm. Guid. Des. Natl. Healthc. Disparities Rep. Washington, DC: Inst. Med.
115. Tafoya SM. 2000. Check one or more... mixed race and ethnicity in California. Calif. Counts 1:1-11
116. Tai-Seale M, Freund D, LoSasso A. 2001. Racial disparities in service use among Medicaid beneficiaries after mandatory enrollment in managed care: a difference-in-differences approach. Inquiry 38(1):49-59
117. nd ed. Washington, DC: US GPO
118. United States General Accounting Office. 1983. Citing of Hazardous Waste Landfills and Their Correlation with Racial and Economic Status of Surrounding Communities. Washington, DC: RCED: 83-168
119. Venter JC, et al. 2001. The sequence of the human genome. Science 291(5507):1304-51
120. Wallman KK, Evinger S, Schechter S. 2000. Measuring our nation's diversity: developing a common language for data on race/ethnicity. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1704-8
121. Warren RC, Hahn RA, Bristow L, Yu ESH. 1994. The use of race and ethnicity in public health surveillance. Public Health Rep. 109:4-6
122. Washington DL, Harada ND, Villa VM, Damron-Rodriguez J, Dhanani S, et al. 2002. Racial variations in Department of Veterans Affairs ambulatory care use and unmet health care needs. Milit. Med. 167(3):235-41
123. Waters MC. 1990. Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
124. Waters MC. 2000. Immigration, intermarriage, and the challenges of measuring racial/ethnic identities. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1735-37
125. Weech-Maldonado R, Morales LS, Spritzer K, Elliott M, Hays RD. 2001. Racial and ethnic differences in parents' assessments of pediatric care in Medicaid managed care. Health Serv. Res. 36(3):575-94
126. Weinick RM, Zuvekas SH, Cohen JW. 2000. Racial and ethnic differences in access to and use of health care services 1977 to 1996. Med. Care Res. Rev. 57(Suppl. 1):36-54
127. Williams DR. 1994. The concept of race in Health Services Research: 1966 to 1990. Health Serv. Res. 29(3):261-74
128. Williams DR. 1997. Race and health: basic questions, emerging directions. Ann. Epidemiol. 7(5):322-33
129. Williams DR, Collins C. 2001. Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Rep. 116(5):404-16
130. Williams DR, Jackson JS. 2000. Race/ethnicity and the 2000 census: recommendations for African American and other black populations in the United States. Am. J. Public Health 90(11):1728-30
131. Williams DR, Lavizzo-Mourey R, Warren RC. 1994. The concept of race and health status in America. Public Health Rep. 109(1):26-41
132. Wilson JF, Weale ME, Smith AC, Gratrixi F, Fletcher B, et al. 2001. Population genetic structure of variable drug response. Nat. Genet. 29:265-69
133. Wood AJJ. 2001. Racial differences in the response to drugs - pointers to genetic differences. N. Engl. J. Med. 344:1351-57
134. Xie Y, Goyette K. 1998. The racial identification of biracial children with one Asian parent: evidence from the 1990 census. Soc. Forces 76:547-70
135. Yergan J, Flood AB, LoGerfo JP, Diehr P. 1987. Relationship between patient race and the intensity of hospital services. Med. Care 25:592-603
136. Zambrana RE, Carter-Pokras O. 2001. Health data issues for Hispanics: implications for public health research. J. Health Care Poor Underserv. 12(1):20-34