Animal models of depression: Are there any?

Human Psychopharmacology

Volumn 18, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 239-254

  O'Neil, Michael F ^a   Moore, Nicholas A ^a  

^a ELI LILLY AND COMPANY   (United States)

Author keywords

Disease; Models; Nervous system

Indexed keywords

5 HYDROXYTRYPTOPHAN; ALPRAZOLAM; AMITRIPTYLINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CHLORPROMAZINE; CLOMIPRAMINE; DESIPRAMINE; DIAZEPAM; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; FLUOXETINE; FLUVOXAMINE; IMIPRAMINE; IPRONIAZID; MIANSERIN; MILNACIPRAN; MK 689; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; N [2 [4 (2 METHOXYPHENYL) 1 PIPERAZINYL]ETHYL] N (2 PYRIDYL)CYCLOHEXANECARBOXAMIDE; OLANZAPINE; PAROXETINE; PINDOLOL; PSYCHOSTIMULANT AGENT; RESERPINE; SEROTONIN ANTAGONIST; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZIMELDINE;

ACCURACY; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; DEPRESSION; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FUNCTION DISORDER; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE MODEL; DRUG ACTIVITY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG TARGETING; FORCED SWIMMING TEST; GENETIC ENGINEERING; HUMAN; HYPOTHERMIA; IN VIVO STUDY; LIBIDO DISORDER; LIFE EVENT; MENTAL STRESS; MICRODIALYSIS; NAUSEA; NEUROCHEMISTRY; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION; SOCIAL PROBLEM; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; VALIDATION PROCESS;

ANIMALS; ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS;

EID: 0038039305     PISSN: 08856222     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/hup.496     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Alloy LB, Lipman AJ, Abramson LY. 1992. Attributional style as a vulnerability factor for depression: validation by past history of mood disorders. Cognit Ther Res 16: 391-407.
2. Arbel I, Kadar T, Silberman M, Levy A. 1994. The effects of long-term corticosterone administration on hippocampal morphology and cognitive performance of middle-aged rats. Brain Res 657: 227-235.
3. Artigas F, Perez V, Alvarez E. 1994. Pindolol induces a rapid improvement of depressed patients treated with serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51: 248-251.
4. Artigas F, Romero L, DeMontigny C, Blier P. 1996. Acceleration of the effect of selected antidepressant drugs in major depression by 5-HT1A antagonists. Trends Pharmacol Sci 19: 378-383.
5. Asberg M, Thoren P, Traskman L, Bertilsson L, Rinberger V. 1976. 'Serotonin depression'-a biochemical subgroup with the affective disorder? Science 191: 478-480.
6. Assie MB, Charveron M, Palmier C, Puiozzo C, Moret C, Briley M. 1992. Effects of prolonged administration of milnacipran, a new antidepressant, on receptors and monoamine uptake in the brain of the rat. Neuropharmacology 31: 149-155.
7. Ballard TM, Sanger S, Higgins GA. 2001. Inhibition of shock-induced foot tapping behaviour in the gerbil by a tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonist. Eur J Pharmacol 412: 255-264.
8. Ban TA. 2001. Pharmacotherapy of mental illness-a historical analysis. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiat 25: 709-727.
9. Bein HJ. 1978. Prejudices in pharmacology and pharmacotherapy: reserpine as a model for experimental research in depression. Pharmakopsychiatry 11: 289-293.
10. Beresford IJ, Birch PJ, Hagan RM, Ireland SJ. 1991. Investigation into species variants in tachykinin NK1 receptors by use of the non-peptide antagonist CP96.345. Br J Pharmacol 104: 292-293.
11. Berman RM, Darnell AM, Miller HL, Anand A, Charney DS. 1997. Effect of pindolol in hastening the response to fluoxetine in the treatment of major depression: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J psychiatry 154: 37-43.
12. Blalock JE. 1994. The syntax of immune-neuroendocrine communication. Immunol Today 15: 504-511.
13. Blanchard DC, Blanchard RJ. 1990. Behavioral correlates of chronic dominance-subordination relationships of male rats in a seminatural situation. Neurosci Biobehav Revs 14: 455-462.
14. Blanchard DC, Sakai RR, McEwen B, Weiss SM, Blanchard RJ. 1993. Subordination stress: behavioral, brain and neuroendocrine correlates. Behav Brain Res 58: 113-121.
15. Blanchard RJ, Nikulina JN, Sakai RR, McKittrick C, McEwen B, Blanchard DC. 1998a. Behavioral and endocrine change following chronic predatory stress. Physiol Behav 63: 561-569.
16. Blanchard DC, Griebel G, Rodgers RJ, Blanchard RJ. 1998b. Benzodiazepine and serotonergic modulation of antipredator and conspecific defense. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 22: 597-612.
17. Blanchard RJ, McKittrick CR, Blanchard DC. 2001a. Animal models of social stress: effects on behavior and brain neurochemical systems. Physiol Behav 73: 261-271.
18. Blanchard RJ, Yudko E, Dulloog L, Blanchard DC. 2001b. Defense changes in stress nonresponsive subordinate males in a visible burrow system. Physiol Behav 72: 635-642.
19. Borsini F. 1995. Role of the serotonergic system in the forced swimming test. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 19: 377-395.
20. Borsini F, Meli A. 1988. Is the forced swimming test a suitable model for revealing antidepressant activity? Psychopharmacology 94: 147-160.
21. Bremner JD. 1999. Does stress damage the brain? Biol Psychiatry 45: 797-805.
22. Bristow LJ, Young L. 1994. Chromodacryorrhea and repetitive hind paw tapping: models of peripheral and central tachykinin NK-1 receptor activation in gerbils. Eur J Pharmacol 253: 245-252.
23. Cairncross KD, Cox B, Forster C, Wren AF. 1979. Olfactory projection systems, drugs and behaviour: a review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 4: 253-272.
24. Cairncross KD, King MG. 1971. Facilitation of avoidance learning in anosmic rats by amitriptyline. Proc Austr Physiol Pharmac Soc 2: 25. In Van Riezen and Leonard (1990) Pharmac Ther 47: 21-34.
25. Caldji C, Diorio J, Meaney MJ. 2000. Variations in maternal care in infancy regulate the development of stress reactivity. Biol Psychiatry 48: 1164-1174.
26. Carlsson A, Wong DT. 1997. A note on the discovery of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Life Sci 61: 1203. Correction to Wong et al. 1995. Life Sci 57: 411-441.
27. Chalouff F. 1993. Physiopharmacological interactions between stress hormones and central serotonergic systems. Brain Res Rev 18: 1-32.
28. Coplan JD, Andrews MW, Rosenblum LA, et al. 1996. Persistent elevations of cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of corticotropin-releasing factor in adult nonhuman primates exposed to early-life stressors: implications for pathophysiology of mood and anxiety disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 1619-1623.
29. Cryan JF, McGrath C, Leonard BE, Norman T. 1998. Combining pindolol and paroxetine in an animal model of chronic antidepressant action-can early onset of action be detected? Eur J Pharmacol 352: 23-28.
30. Cryan JF, McGrath C, Leonard BE, Norman TTR. 1999. Onset of the effects of the 5-HT1A antagonist WAY100635, alone, and in combination with paroxetine, on olfactory bulbectomy and 8-OH-DPAT-induced changes in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 63: 333-338.
31. Czeh B, Michaelis T, et al. 2001. Stress-induced changes in cerebral metabolites, hippocampal volume, and cell proliferation are prevented by antidepressant treatment with tianeptine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 12320-12322.
32. Danysz W, Archer T, Fowler CJ. 1991. Screening for antidepressant drugs. In Behavioural Models in Psychopharmacology: Theoretical, Industrial and Clinical Perspectives, Willner P (ed.). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 126-156.
33. De Kloet ER, Oitzl MS, Joels M. 1999. Stress and cognition: are corticosteroids good or bad guys? Trends Neurosci 22: 422-426.
34. De Kloet ER, Vreugdenil E, Oitzl MS, Joels M. 1998. Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocr Rev 19: 269-301.
35. Delgado PL, Charney DS, Price LH, Aghajanian GK, Landis H, Heninger GR. 1990. Serotonin function and the mechanism of antidepressant action. Reversal of antidepressant-induced remission by rapid depletion of plasma tryptophan. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47: 411-418.
36. Dewan MJ, Anand VS. 1999. Evaluating the tolerability of the newer antidepressants. J Nerv Mental Disord 187: 96- 101.
37. Dinan TG. 1994. Glucocorticoids and the genesis of depressive illness. Br J Psychiatry 164: 365-371.
38. Evans DL, Leserman J, Pedersen CA, et al. 1989. Immune correlates of stress and depression. Psychopharmacol Bull 25: 319-324.
39. Feighner JP. 1999. Mechanism of action of antidepressant medications. J Clin Psychiatry 60(Suppl. 4): 4-11.
40. Francis DD, Caldji C, Champagne F, Plotsky PM, Meaney MJ. 1999. The role of corticotropin-releasing factor-norepinephrine systems in mediating the effects of early experience on the development of behavioral and endocrine responses to stress. Biol Psychiatry 46: 1153-1166.
41. Frank L, Revicki DA, Sorensen SV, Shih YC. 2001. The economics of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in depression: a critical review. CNS Drugs 15: 59-83.
42. Fuchs E, Kramer M, Hermes B, Netter P, Hiemke C. 1996. Psychosocial stress in tree shrews: clomipramine counteracts behavioral and endocrine changes. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 54: 219-228.
43. Garber J, Seligman ME (eds). 1980. Human Helplessness: Theory and Applications. Academic Press: New York.
44. Gentsch C, Lichtsteiner M, Feer H. 1988a. Competition for sucrose pellets in triads of male Wistar rats: the individual's performances are differing but stable. Behav Brain Res 27: 37-44.
45. Gentsch C, Lichtsteiner M, Feet H. 1988b. Competition for sucrose pellets in triads of male Wistar rats: effects of three serotonergic drugs. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 12: 639-651.
46. Geyer MA, Markou A. 1995. Animal models of psychiatric disorders. In Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress, Bloom FE, Kupler DJ (eds). Raven Press: New York; 777-798.
47. Graham EA, Turpin MP, Stubbs CM. 1993. Characterisation of the tachykinin-induced hindlimb thumping response in gerbils. Neuropeptides 4: 228.
48. Grahame-Smith DG. 1971a. Inhibitory effect of chlorpromazine on the syndrome of hyperactivity produced by L-tryptophan or 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine in rats treated with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Br J Pharmacol 43: 856-864.
49. Grahame-Smith DG. 1971b. Studies in vivo on the relationship between brain tryptophan, brain 5-HT synthesis and hyperactivity in rats treated with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and L-tryptophan. J Neurochem 18: 1053-1066.
50. Grant EC, Chance MR. 1958. Rank order in caged rats. Animal Behav 6: 183-194.
51. Griebel G, Blanchard DC, Agnes RS, Blanchard RJ. 1995. Differential modulation of antipredator defensive behavior in Swiss-Webster mice following acute or chronic administration of imipramine and fluoxetine. Psychopharmacology 120: 57-66.
52. Iwasaki K, Fujiwara M, Shibata S, Ueki S. 1986. Changes in brain catecholamine levels following olfactory bulbectomy and the effects of acute and chronic administration of desipramine in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 24: 1715-1719.
53. Jackson RL, Minor TR. 1988. Effects of signalling inescapable shock on subsequent escape learning: implications for theories of coping and learned helplessness. J Exp Psychol: Animal Behav Proc 14: 390-400.
54. Jancsar S, Leonard BE. 1983. The olfactory bulbectomized rat as a model of depression. In Frontiers in Neuropsychiatric Research, Usdin E, Goldstein M, Friedhoff AJ, Georgotas A (eds). Macmillan: New York; 357-372.
55. Joly D, Sanger DJ. 1986. The effects of fluoxetine and zimeldine on the behavior of olfactory bulbectomized rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 24: 199-204.
56. Karolewicz B, Paul IA. 2001. Group housing of mice increases immobility and antidepressant sensitivity in forced swim and tail suspension tests. Eur J Pharmacol 415: 197-201.
57. Katz MM, Koslow SH, Maas JW, et al. 1991. Identifying the specific clinical actions of amitriptyline: interrelationships of behavior, affect and plasma levels in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43: 765-771.
58. Katz MM, Maas JW. 1994. Psychopharmacology and the etiology of psychopathological states: are we looking in the right way? Neuropsychopharmacology 10: 139-144.
59. Kelly JP, Leonard BE. 1994. The effect of tianeptine and sertraline in three animal models of depression. Neuropharmacology 33: 1011-1016.
60. Kelly JP. 2001. Effect of olanzapine in the olfactory bulbectomized rat model of depression. World J Biol Pychiatry 2: 355.
61. Kramer MS, Cutler N, Feighner J, et al. 1998. Novel mechanism for antidepressant activity by blockade of central substance P receptors. Science 281: 1640-1645.
62. Lahmame A, del Arco C, Pazos A, Yritia M, Armario A. 1997. Are Wistar-Kyoto rats a genetic animal model of depression resistant to antidepressants? Eur J Pharmacol 337: 115-123.
63. Lawrence MS, Sapolsky RM. 1994. Glucocorticoids accelerate ATP loss following metabolic insults in cultured hippocampal neurons. Brain Res 646: 303-346.
64. Leonard BE. 1995. Mechanisms of action of antidepressants. CNS Drugs 4(Suppl 1): 1-12.
65. Leonard BE, Tuite M. 1981. Anatomical, physiological and behavioral aspects of olfactory bulbectomy in the rat. Int Rev Neurobiol 22: 251-286.
66. Liu X, Gershenfeld HK. 2001. Genetic differences in the tail suspension test and its relationship to imipramine response among 11 inbred strains of mice. Biol Psychiatry 49: 575-581.
67. Lucki I. 1997. The forced swimming test as a model for core and component behavioral effects of antidepressant drugs. Behav Pharmacol 8: 523-532.
68. Magarinos AM, McEwen B, Flugge G, Fuchs E. 1996. Chronic psychosocial stress causes apical dendritic atrophy of hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons in subordinate tree shrews. J Neuroscience 16: 3534-3540.
69. Maier SF. 1984. Learned helplessness and animal models of depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiat 8: 435-446.
70. Maier SF, Seligman MEP. 1976. Learned helplessness: theory and evidence. J Exp Psychol Gen 1: 3-46.
71. Mancinelli A, Borsini F, d'Aranno V, Lecci A, Meli A. 1988. Cholinergic drug effects on antidepressant-induced behaviour in the forced swimming test. Eur J Pharmacol 158: 199-205.
72. Mann JJ, Malone KM, Diehl, Perel J, Cooper TB, Mintun, MA. 1996. Demonstration of in vivo of reduced serotonin responsitivity in the brain of untreated depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 153: 174-182.
73. Mar A, Spreekmeester E, Rochford J. 2000. Antidepressants preferentially enhance habituation to novelty in the olfactory bulbectomised rat. Psychopharmacology 150: 52-60.
74. Martin P, Soubrie P, Simon P. 1987. The effect of monoamine oxidase inhibitors compared with classical tricyclic antidepressants on learned helplessness paradigm. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol & Biol Psychiat 11: 1-7.
75. McEwen BS. 1999. Stress and hippocampal plasticity. Ann Rev Neurosci 22: 105-122.
76. McKittrick CR, Magariños AM, Blanchard DC, Blanchard RJ, McEwen BS, Sakai RR. 2000. Chronic social stress reduces dendritic arbors in CA3 of hippocampus and decreases binding to serotonin transporter sites. Synapse 36: 85-94.
77. Meaney MJ, Aitken DH, Viau V, Sharma S, Sarrieau A. 1989. Neonatal handling alters adrenocortical negative feedback sensitivity and hippocampal type II glucocorticoid receptor binding in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 50: 597-604.
78. Miller HL, Delgado PL, Salomon RM, et al. 1996. Clinical and biochemical effects of catecholamine depletion on antidepressant-induced remission of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53: 117-128.
79. Miller L, Griffith J. 1983. A comparison of bupropion, dextroamphetamine and placebo in mixed-substance abusers. Psychopharmacology 80: 199-205.
80. Mitchell PJ, Redfern PH. 1992. Chronic treatment with clomipramine and mianserin increases the hierarchical position of subdominant rats housed in triads. Behav Pharmacol 3: 329-247.
81. Modell JG, Katholi CR, Modell JD, DePalma RA. 1997. Comparative sexual side effects of bupropion, fluoxetine, paraoxetine and sertraline. Clin Pharm Ther 61: 476-487.
82. Molewijk HE, Hartog K, van der Poel, Mos J, Olivier B. 1996. Reduction of guinea pig pup isolation calls by anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs. Psychopharmacology 128: 31-38.
83. Moreau JL, Scherschlicht R, Jenck F, Martin JR. 1995. Chronic mild stress-induced anhedonia model of depression: sleep abnormalities and curative effects of electroshock treatment. Behav Pharmacol 6: 682-687.
84. Nemeroff C. 1996. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hypothesis of depression: new findings and directions. Mol Psychiatry 1: 336-342.
85. Nielsen CK, Arnt J, Sanchez C. 2000. Intracranial self-stimulation and sucrose intake differ as hedonic measures following chronic mild stress: interstrain and interindividual differences. Behav Brain Res 107: 21-33.
86. Nierenberg AA, Keefe BR, Leslie VC, et al. 1999. Residual symptoms in depressed patients who respond acutely to fluoxetine. J Clin Psychiatry 60: 221-225.
87. Nomikos GG, Daamsma G, Wenkstern D, Fibiger HC. 1991. Chronic desipramine enhances amphetamine-induced increases in interstitial concentrations of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Eur J Pharmacol 195: 63-73.
88. Nutt D, Bell C, Potokar J. 1997. Depression, Anxiety and Mixed Conditions. Martin Dunitz: UK.
89. Ohl F, Michaelis T, Vollman-Honsdorf GK, Kirshbaum C, Fuchs E. 2000. Effect of chronic psychosocial stress and long-term cortisol treatment of hippocampus-mediated memory and hippocampal volume: a pilot study in tree shrews. Psychoneuroendocrinology 25: 357-363.
90. Olivier B, Molewijk HE, van der Heyden JAM, et al. 1998. Ultrasonic vocalisations in rat pups: effects of serotonergic ligands. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 23: 215-227.
91. Petty F, Kramer G, Wilson L, Chae YL. 1993. Learned helplessness, in vivo hippocampal norepinephrine release. Pharmacol, Biochem and Behav 46: 231-235.
92. Porsolt RD, Anton G, Blavet N, Jalfre M. 1978a. Behavioural despair in rats: a new model sensitive to antidepressant treatments. Eur J Pharmacol 47: 379-391.
93. Porsolt RD, Bertin A, Blavet N, Deniel M, Jalfre M. 1979. Immobility induced by forced swimming in rats: effects of agents which modify central catecholamine and serotonin activity. Eur J Pharmacol 57: 201-210.
94. Porsolt RD, Bertin A, Jalfre M. 1978b. Behavioural despair in rats and mice: strain differences and the effects of imipramine. Eur J Pharmacol 51: 291-294.
95. Possidente B, Lumia AR, McGinnis MY, Rapp M, McEldowney S. 1996. Effects of fluoxetine and olfactory bulbectomy on mouse circadian activity rhythms. Brain Res 713: 108-113.
96. Puech AJ, Chermant R, Poncelet M, Doare L, Simon P. 1981. Antagonism of hypothermia and behavioural response to apomorphine: a simple, rapid and discriminating test for screening antidepressants and neuroleptics. Psychopharmacology 75: 84-91.
97. Redmond AM, Kelly JP, Leonard BE. 1999. The determination of the optimal dose of milnacipran in the olfactory bulbectomized rat model of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 62: 619-623.
98. Redrobe JP, Boutin M, Colombel MC, Baker GB. 1998. Dose-dependent noradrenergic and serotonergic properties of venlafaxine in animal models indicative of antidepressant activity. Psychopharmacologia 138: 1-8.
99. Reid I, Forbes N, Stewart C, Matthews K. 1997. Chronic mild stress and depressive disorder: a useful new model. Psychopharmacology 134: 365-367; discussion 371-377.
100. Richelson E. 1994. Pharmacology of antidepressants-characteristics of the ideal drug. Mayo Clin Proc 69: 1069-1081.
101. Ronan PJ, Steciuk M, Kramer GL, Kram M, Petty F. 2000. Increased septal 5-HIAA efflux in rats that do not develop learned helplessness after inescapable stress. J Neurosci Res 61: 101-106.
102. Rots NY, de Jong J, Workel JO, Levine S, Cools AR, De Kloet ER. 1996. Neonatally maternally deprived rats have as adults elevated basal pituitary-adrenal activity and enhanced susceptibility to apomorphine. J Neuroendocrinol 8: 501-506.
103. Rupniak NM, Kramer MS. 1999. Discovery of the antidepressant and anti-emetic efficacy of substance P receptor (NK-1) antagonists. Trends Pharmacol Sci 20: 485-490.
104. Rupniak NMJ, Carlson EC, Harrison T, et al. 2000. Pharmacological blockade or genetic deletion of substance P (NK1) receptors attenuates neonatal vocalisation in guinea-pigs and mice. Neuropharmacology 39: 1413-1421.
105. Sapolsky R. 2000. The possibility of neurotoxicity in the hippocampus in major depression: a primer in neuron death. Biol Psychiatry 48: 755-765.
106. Schramm NL, McDonald MP, Limbird LE. 2001. The a2A-Adrenergic receptor plays a protective role in mouse behavioral models of depression and anxiety. J Neurosci 21: 4875-4882.
107. Seligman MEP, Maier SF. 1967. Failure to escape traumatic shock. J Exp Psych 74: 1-9.
108. Selikoff IJ, Robitek EH, Orenstein GG. 1952. Treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis with hydrazine derivatives of isonicotinic acid. J Am Med Assoc 150: 973-980.
109. Seth R, Jennings AL, Bindman J, Phillips J, Bergman K. 1992. Combination treatment with noradrenalin and serotonin reuptake inhibitors in resistant depression. Br J Psychiatry 161: 562-565.
110. Sheline YI, Wang PW, Gado MH, Csernansky JG, Vannier MW. 1996. Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 3908-3913.
111. Sherman AD, Sacquitne SL, Petty F. 1982. Specificity of the learned helplessness model of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 16: 449-454.
112. 1) receptor. Science 848: 90-95.
113. Song C, Leonard BE. 1994. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors reverse the impairments in behaviour, neurotransmitter and immune functions in the olfactory bulbectomized rat. Hum Psychopharmacol 9: 135-146.
114. Stassen HH, Angst J. 1998. Delayed onset of action of antidepressants: fact or fiction? CNS Drugs 9: 177-184.
115. Stern L, Chermat R, Thierry B, Simon P. 1985. The tail suspension test: a new method for screening antidepressants in mice. Psychopharmacology 85: 367-370.
116. Steru L, Chermat R, Thierry B, et al. 1987. The automated Tail Suspension Test: a computerized device which differentiates psychotropic drugs. Progr Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 11: 659-671.
117. Street H, Sheeran P, Orbell S. 2001. Exploring the relationship between different psychosocial determinants of depression: a multidimensional scaling analysis. J Aff Disorders 64: 53-67.
118. Summers CH, Larson ET, Summers TR, Renner KJ, Greenberg N. 1998. Regional and temporal separation of serotonergic activity mediating social stress. Neuroscience 87: 489-496.
119. Suomi SJ. 1991. Early stress, adult emotional reactivity in rhesus monkeys. Ciba Foundation Symposium 156: 171-188.
120. Thierry B, Stern L, Simon P, Porsolt RD. 1986. The tail suspension test: ethical considerations. Psychopharmacology 90: 284-285.
121. Tollefson G, Holman SL. 1994. How long to onset of antidepressant action: a meta-analysis of patients treated with fluoxetine or placebo. Clin Psychopharmacol 9: 245-250.
122. Trullas R, Jackson B, Skolnick P. 1989. Genetic differences in a tail suspension test for evaluating antidepressant activity. Psychopharmacology 99: 287-288.
123. Van Kampen M, Schmitt U, Hiemke C, Fuchs E. 2000. Diazepam has no beneficial effects on stress-induced behavioural and endocrine changes in male tree shrews. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 65: 539-546.
124. Van Riezen H, Leonard BE. 1990. Effects of psychotropic drugs on the behavior and neurochemistry of olfactory bulbectomized rats. Pharmac Ther 47: 21-34.
125. Westerink BH. 1995. Brain microdialysis and its application for the study of animal behaviour. Behav Brain Res 70: 103-124.
126. Willner P. 1986. Validating criteria for animal models of human mental disorders: learned helplessness as a paradigm case. Prog Neuropsychobiol Biol Psychiatry 10: 677-690.
127. Willner P. 1991a. Animal models as simulations of depression. Trends Pharmacol Sci 12: 131-136.
128. Willner P. 1991b. Animal models of depression. Screening for antidepressant drugs. In Behavioural Models in Psychopharmacology: Theoretical, Industrial and Clinical Perspectives, Willner P (ed.). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge; 91-125.
129. Willner P. 1997. The mesolimbic dopamine system as a target for rapid antidepressant action. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 12(Suppl. 3): S7-S14.
130. Willner P, Muscat R, Papp M. 1992. Chronic mild stress-induced anhedonia: a realistic animal model of depression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 16: 525-534.
131. Willner P, Towell A, Sampson D, Sophokleous S, Muscat R. 1987. Reduction of sucrose preference by chronic mild unpredictable stress, and its restoration by a tricyclic antidepressant. Psychopharmacology 93: 358-364.
132. Wong DT, Bymaster FP, Engelman E. 1995. Prozac (Fluoxetine, Lilly110140), the first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and an antidepressant drug: twenty years since its first publication. Life Sci 57: 411-441.
133. Wong M-L, Licinio J. 2001. Research and treatment approaches to depression. Nature Revs 2: 343-351.
134. Yang T, Dunner DL. 2001. Differential subtyping of depression. Depression Anxiety 13: 11-17.