Recommendations for the diagnosis, therapy and prevention of pneumonia in the immunocompromised host;Empfehlungen zur diagnostik, therapie und prävention von pneumonien bei erworbenem immundefizit

Pneumologie

Volumn 56, Issue 12, 2002, Pages 807-831

  Dalhoff, Klaus ^a   Ewig, S ^b   Hoffken G ^c   Lorenz, J ^d   Maass, M ^a   Niedermeyer, J ^e   Ratjen, F ^f   Welte, T ^g   Wilkens, H ^h  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL SCHLESWIG HOLSTEIN   (Germany)

^b Augusta Kranken Anstalt   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL CARL GUSTAV CARUS   (Germany)

^d Abteilung Innere II   (Germany)

^e HANNOVER MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Germany)

^f UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ESSEN   (Germany)

^g OTTO VON GUERICKE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^h SAARLAND UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AMINOPENICILLIN; AMPHOTERICIN; AMPHOTERICIN B; AMPHOTERICIN B LIPID COMPLEX; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA LACTAMASE INHIBITOR; CARBAPENEM; CEFEPIME; CEFTAZIDIME; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CIDOFOVIR; CIPROFLOXACIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; FLUCONAZOLE; FLUCYTOSINE; FOSCARNET; GANCICLOVIR; GLYCOPEPTIDE; HYPERIMMUNE GLOBULIN; IMIPENEM; ITRACONAZOLE; MACROLIDE; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFABUTIN; TEICOPLANIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG INDICATION; FUNGUS; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; HUMAN; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INFECTION RISK; PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RNA VIRUS; TREATMENT INDICATION; VIRUS DIAGNOSIS;

GERMANY; HUMANS; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST; IMMUNOLOGIC DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES; INCIDENCE; PNEUMONIA; QUALITY ASSURANCE, HEALTH CARE;

EID: 0036950679     PISSN: 09348387     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-36124     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Deutsche Stiftung für Organtransplantation. Organspende und Transplantation, Deutschland 1999. Neu-Isenburg: DSO, 2000
2. UNAIDS. Epidemic update - Report on the Global HIV/AIDS epidemic, December 2000. http://www.unaids.org/epidemic_update/report_dec00/index_dec.html.
3. Hughes WT, Armstrong D, Bodey GP et al. Guidelines for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with unexplained fever. J Infect Dis 1990; 161: 381-396
4. Pizzo PA. Management of fever in patients with cancer and treatment-induced neutropenia. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1323-1332
5. Maschmeyer G, Link H, Hiddemann W et al. Empirische antimikrobielle Therapie bei neutropenischen Patienten. Ergebnisse einer Studie der Arbeitsgruppe Infektionen in der Hämatologie der Paul-Ehrlich-Gesellschaft. Med Klin 1994; 89: 114-123
6. Barloon TJ, Galvin JR, Mori M et al. High-resolution ultrafast chest CT in the clinical management of febrile bone marrow transplant patients with normal or nonspecific chest roentgenogramms. Chest 1991; 99: 928-933
7. Klein JO, Mortimer EA. Use of pneumococcal vaccine in children. Pediatrics 1978; 61: 312-322
8. Bridgen ML, Patullo AL. Prevention and management of overwhelming postsplenectomy infection - An update. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 836-842
9. Heffelfinger JD, Dowell SF, Jorgensen JH et al. Management of communnity-acquired pneumonia in the era of pneumococcal resistance. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1399-1408
10. Co-operative group for the study of immunoglobulin in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Intravenous immunoglobulin for the prevention of infection in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 902-907
11. Griffiths H, Brennan V, Lea J. Crossover study of Immunoglobulin replacement therapy in patients with low-grade-B-cell tumors. Blood 1989; 73: 366-368
12. Boughton BJ, Jackson N, Lim S et al. Randomized trial of intravenous immunoglobulin prophylaxis for patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and secondary hypogammaglobulinaenia. Clin Lab Haematol 1995; 17: 75-80
13. Molica S, Musto P, Chiurazzi F. Prophylaxis against infections with low-dose intravenous immunoglobulins in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Results of a crossover study. Haematologica 1996; 81: 121-126
14. Schedel I. Application of immunoglobulin preparations in multiple myeloma. In: Morell A, Nydegger UE. Clinical use of immunoglobulins. New York: Academic Press, 1986: 123-132
15. Pirofsky B, Kinzey DM. Intravenous immune globulins. A review of their use in selected immunodeficiency and autoimmune diseases. Drugs 1992; 43: 6-14
16. Wahn V, Eibl M, Spaith P. Anwendung polyvalenter intravenöser Immunglobuline in der Therapie. Mschr Kinderheilkd 1999; 147: 293-297
17. Carratala J, Roson B, Fernandez-Sevilla A et al. Bacteremic Pneumonia in Neutropenic Patients with Cancer. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 868-872
18. Hughes WT, Armstrong D, Bodey GP. Guidelines for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with unexplained fever. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 551-573
19. Kuhlmann JE, Fishman E, Siegelman S. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in acute leukemia: characteristic findings in CT, the CT halo sign, and the role of CT in early diagnosis. Radiology 1985; 157: 611-619
20. Heussel C, Kauczor H, Heussel G. Early detection of pneumonia in febrile neutropenic patients: Use of thin-section CT. Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169: 1347-1353
21. Shelhammer JH, Toews GB, Masur H et al. Respiratory disease in the immunosuppressed patient. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 415-431
22. Sickles E, Young V, Greene W. Pneumonia in acute leukemia. Ann Intern Med 1973; 79: 528-534
23. Stover DE, Zaman MB, Hajdu SI et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of diffuse pulmonary infiltrates in the immunosuppressed host. Ann Intern Med 1984; 101: 1-7
24. Saito H, Anaissie EJ, Morice RC et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in patients with acute leukemia. Chest 1988; 94: 745-749
25. Marra R, Pagano L, Pagliari G et al. The yield of bronchoalveolar lavage in the etiological diagnosis of pneumonia in leukemia and lymphoma patients. Eur J Hematol 1993; 51: 256-258
26. Ewig S, Glasmacher A, Ulrich B et al. Pulmonary infiltrates in neutropenic patients with acute leukemia during chemotherapy: outcome and prognostic factors. Chest 1998; 114: 444-451
27. Ewig S, Torres A, Riquelme R et al. Pulmonary complications in patients with haematologic malignancies treated at a respiratory ICU. Eur Respir J 1998; 12: 116-122
28. von Eiff M, Zühlsdorf M, Roos N et al. Pulmonary infiltrates in patients with hematologic malignancies Clinical usefulness of non-invasive bronchoscopic procedures. Eur J Haematol 1995; 54: 157-162
29. Rano A, Agusti C, Jimenez P et al. Pulmonary infiltrates in non-HIV immunocompromised patients: a diagnostic approach using non-invasive and bronchoscopic procedures. Thorax 2001; 56: 379-387
30. Antonelli M, Conti G, Riccioni L et al. Noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation via face mask during bronchoscopy with BAL in high-risk hypoxemic patients. Chest 1996; 110: 724-728
31. Pennington JE, Feldman NT. Pulmonary infiltrates and fever in patients with hematologic malignancy. Assessment of transbronchial biopsy. Am J Med 1977; 62: 581-587
32. Phillips MJ, Knight RK, Green M. Fibreoptic bronchoscopy and diagnosis of pulmonary lesions in lymphoma and leukemia. Thorax 1980; 35: 19-25
33. Cazzadori A, Di Perri G, Todeschini G et al. Transbronchial biopsy in the diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in immunocompromised patients. Chest 1995; 107: 101-105
34. Wong PW, Stefanec T, Brown K et al. Role of fine-needle aspirates of focal lung lesions in patients with hematologic malignancies. Chest 2002; 121: 527-532
35. White DA, Wong PW, Downey R. The Utility of Open Lung Biopsy in patients with hematologic malignancies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 723-729
36. von Eiff M, Zühlsdorf M, Roos N et al. Pulmonary fungal infections in patients with hematological malignancies - Diagnostic approaches. Ann Hematol 1995; 70: 135-141
37. Kahn FW, Jones JM, England DM. The role of bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Am J Clin Pathol 1986; 86: 518-523
38. Glasmacher A, Marklein G, Just-Nübling G et al. Diagnostik invasiver Mykosen bei neutropenischen Patienten mit hämatologischen Systemerkrankungen. Dtsch Med Wschr 1998; 123: 157-160
39. Horvath J, Dummer S. The use of respiratory tract cultures in the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Am J Med 1996; 100: 171-178
40. Sulahian A, Taboluret M, Ribaud P. Comparison of an enzyme immunoassay and latex agglutination test for detection of galactomannan in the diagnosis of aspergillosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996; 15: 139-145
41. Peters SG, Meadows JA, Gracey DR. Outcome of respiratory failure in hematologic malignancy. Chest 1988; 94: 99-102
42. Ramphal R. Is monotherapy for febrile neutropenia still a viable alternative? Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 508-514
43. Maschmeyer G, Link H, Hiddemann W et al. Pulmonary infiltrations in febrile patients with neutropenia. Cancer 1994; 73: 2296-2304
44. Maschmeyer G, Beinert T, Buchheidt D et al. Diagnostik und Therapie von Lungeninfiltraten bei febrilen neutropenischen Patienten. Dtsch Med Wschr 1999; 124: S18-S23
45. 3: Plenum Publishers, 1994: 629-705
46. Acrasoy SM, Kotloff RM. Lung transplantation. N Engl J Med 1999; 14: 1081-1091
47. Kramer MR, Marshall SE, Starnes VA et al. Infectious complications after heart lung and single lung transplantation. Chest 1993; 104: 681-685
48. Horvarth J, Dummer S, Loyd J et al. Infection in the transplanted and native lung after single lung transplantation. Chest 1993; 104: 681-685
49. Paradis IL, Williams P. Infection after lung transplantation. Semin Respir Infect 1993; 8: 207-215
50. Ho M. Advances in understanding cytomegalovirus infection after transplantation. Transplant Proc 1994; 26: 7-11
51. Paterson D, Singh N. Invasive aspergillosis in transplant recipients. Medicine 1999; 78: 123-138
52. Fishman JA, Rubin RH. Infection in organ-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 1741-1751
53. Westney GE, Kesten S, DeHoyos A et al. Aspergillus infection in single and double lung transplant recipients. Transplantation 1996; 61: 915-919
54. Keenan RJ, Lega ME, Dummer JS. Cytomegalovirus serologic status and postoperative infection correlated with risk of developing chronic rejection after pulmonary transplantation. Transplantation 1991; 51: 433
55. O'Brian JD, Ettinger NA. Pulmonary complications of liver transplantation. Clin Chest Med 1996; 17: 99-114
56. Hohlfeld J, Niedermeyer J, Hamm H et al. Seasonal onset of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 1996; 15: 888-894
57. Kesten S, Chaparro C. Mycobacterial infections in lung transplant recipients. Chest 1999; 115: 741-745
58. Malouf MA, Glanville AR. The Spectrum of Mycobacterial infection after lung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 1611-1616
59. Sternberg RI, Baughman RP, Dohn MN et al. Utility of bronchoalveolar lavage in assessing pneumonia in immunosuppressed renal transplant recipients. Am J Med 1993; 95: 358-364
60. Egan JJ, Barber L, Lomax J. Detection of human cytomegalovirus antigenaemia: a rapid diagnostic technique for predicting cytomegalovirus infection/pneumonitis in lung and heart transplant recipients. Thorax 1995; 50: 59
61. Humar A, Gregson D, Caliendo AM et al. Clinical utility of quantitative cytomegalovirus viral load determination for pedicting cytomegalovirus disease in liver transplant recipients. Transplantation 1999; 68: 1305-1311
62. Caillot D, Casanovas O, Bernard A. Improved management of invasive pulmonary in neutropenic patients using early thoracic computed tomographic scan and surgery. J Clin Oncol 1997; 5: 139-147
63. Johnson PC, Hogg KM, Sarosi GA. The rapid diagnosis of pulmonary infections in solid organ transplant recipients. Semin Respir Infect 1990; 5: 2-9
64. Torres A, Ewig S, Insausti J et al. Etiology and microbial patterns of pulmonary infiltrates in patients with orthotopic liver transplantation. Chest 2000; 117: 494-502
65. Dichter JR, Stewart J, Shelhammer JH. Approach to the immunocompromised host with pulmonary infiltrates. Hematol/Oncol Clin North Am 1993; 7: 887-912
66. Reichenberger F, Habicht J, Matt P et al. Diagnostic yield of bronchoscopy in histologically proven invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Bone Marrow Transplant 1999; 24: 1195-1199
67. Pomerance A, Madden B, Burke MM et al. Transbronchial biosy in heart and lung transplantations: clinicopathologic correlations. J Heart Lung Transplant 1995; 14: 761-773
68. Boehler A. Prospective study of the value of transbronchial lung biopsy after lung transplantation. Eur Respir J 1996; 4: 658-662
69. Trulock EP. Flexible bronchoscopy in lung transplantation. Clin Chest Med 1999; 20: 77-87
70. Paterson D, Singh N, Gayowski T. Pulmonary nodules in liver transplant recipients. Medicine 1998; 77: 50-58
71. Bart ME, Webber BL, Wesley RA. Prospective evaluation of aspiration needle, cutting needle, transbronchial, and open lung biopsy in patients with pulmonary infiltrates. Ann Thorac Surg 1981; 32: 146-153
72. Gregg CR. Drug interactions and anti-infective therapies. Am J Med 1999; 106: 227-237
73. Kim JS, Lee KS, Koh EM et al. Thoracic involvement of systemic lupus erythematodes: Clinical, pathologic, and radiologic findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2000; 24: 9-18
74. Murin S, Wiedemann HP, Matthay RA. Pulmonary manifestations of systemic lupus erythematodes. Chest 1998; 19: 641-665
75. Santamauro JT, White DA. Respiratory infections in HIV-negative immunocompromised patients. Curr Opin Pulm Med 1996; 2: 253-258
76. Godeau B, Coulant-Perrone V, Huong DI et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the course of connective tissue disease: report of 34 cases. J Rheumatol 1994; 21: 246-251
77. Mok CC, Yuen KY, Lau CS. Nocardiosis in systemic lupus erythematodes. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1997; 26: 675-680
78. Feng PH, Tang TH. Tuberculosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematodes. Ann Rheum Dis 1982; 41: 11-18
79. Maini R, St Clair EW, Breedvelt F et al. Infliximab or placebo in rheumatoid arthritis patients receiving concomittant methotrexate: a randomised phase III trial. Lancet 1999; 354: 1932-1939
80. Sullivan WD, Hurst DJ, Harmon CF. A prospective evaluation emphasizing pulmonary involvement in patients with mixed connective tissue disease. Medicine 1984; 63: 92-107
81. Fenlon HM, Doran M, Sant SM. High resolution chest-CT in systemic lupus erythematodes. Am J Roentgenol 1996; 166: 301-306
82. Evans SA, Hopkinson ND, Kinnear WJ. Respiratory disease in systemic lupus erythematodes: correlation with results of laboratory tests and histological appearance of muscle biopsy specimens. Thorax 1992; 47: 957-967
83. Flabouris A, Myburgh J. The utility of open lung biopsy in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Chest 1999; 115: 811-817
84. Agostini C, Trentin L, Zambello and Semenzato G. HIV-1 and the lung. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147: 1038-1049
85. Bofil M, Lipman M, McLaughlin JE et al. Changes in lung lymphocyte populations reflect those seen in peripheral blood in HIV-1 positive individuals. Eur Respir J 1998; 11: 548-553
86. Clerici M, Shearer GM. The Th1-Th2 hypothesis of HIV infection: new insights. Immunol Today 1994; 15: 575-581
87. USHS/IDSA Prevention of Opportunistic Infections Working Group. Guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immundodeficiency virus. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131: 873-896
88. Mayaud C, Cadranel J. AIDS and the lung in a changing world. Thorax 2001; 56: 423-426
89. Bericht des Aids-Zentrums im Robert Koch-Institut über aktuelle epidemiologische Daten, Quartalsbericht IV/98. Berlin, 1999
90. Wallace JM, Hansen NI, Lavange L et al. Respiratory disease trends in the pulmonary complications of HIV infected study cohort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155: 72-80
91. Brodt H, Kamps B, Gute P et al. Changing incidence of AIDS-defining illnesses in the era of antiretroviral combination therapy. AIDS 1997; 11: 1731-1738
92. Sullivan JH, Moore RD, Keruly JC et al. Effect of antiretroviral therapy on the incidence of bacterial pneumonia in patients with advanced HIV infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 64-67
93. Feldman C, Glatthaar M, Morar R et al. Bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia in HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative adults. Chest 1999; 116: 107-114
94. Baughman RP, Dohn M, Frame P. The continuing utillity of bronchoalveolar lavage to diagnose opportunistic infection in AIDS patients. Am J Med 1994; 97: 515-525
95. Koch A, Kothe H, Braun J et al. Inzidenz bakterieller Pneumonien bei HIV-positiven Patienten unter Co-trimoxazol oder Pentamidin. Pneumologie 1998; 52: 614-621
96. Miller RF, Foley NM, Kessel D et al. Community acquired lobar pneumonia in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. Thorax 1994; 49: 367-368
97. Afessa B, Green W, Chiao J et al. Pulmonary complications of HIV-infection. Chest 1998; 113: 1225-1229
98. Waxmann A, Goldie S, Brett-Smith H et al. Cytomegalovirus as a primary pulmonary pathogen in AIDS. Chest 1997; 111: 128-134
99. Mylonakis E, Barlam TF, Flanigan T et al. Pulmonary aspergillosis and invasive disease in AIDS. Chest 1998; 114: 251-262
100. Janoff EN, O'Brien J, Thompson P et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization, bacteremia and immune response among persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 49-56
101. De Gracia J, Miravitlles M, Mayordomo C et al. Empiric treatments impair the diagnostic yield of BAL in HIV-positive patients. Chest 1997; 111: 1180-1186
102. Weldon-Linne CM, Phone DP, Bourassa R. Bronchoscopy specimens in adults with AIDS. Chest 1990; 98: 24-28
103. Cadranel J, Gillet-Juvin K, Antoine M et al. Site-directed bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy in HIV-infected patients with pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1103-1106
104. Caiffa WT, Graham NMH, Vlahov D. Bacterial pneumonia in adult populations with Human Immundeficiency Virus infection. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 138: 909-922
105. Ewig S, Nachtsheim KH, Seuffert HM et al. Protected bronchoalveolar lavage for the diagnosis of HIV-associated pneumonia. J Bronchol 1998; 5: 25-33
106. Jules-Elysee KM, Stover DE, Zaman MB et al. Aerosolized pentamidine: Effect on diagnosis and presentation of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112: 750-757
107. Schlatter CE, Kuster H, Lüthy R et al. Sputumuntersuchung zur Diagnostik der Pneumocyctis-carinii-Pneumonie bei HIV-Infizierten. Dtsch Med Wschr 1994; 119: 1151-1155
108. Schaberg T, Dalhoff K, Ewig S et al. Empfehlungen zur Therapie der ambulant erworbenen Pneumonie. Pneumologie 1998; 52: 450-462
109. Baron AD, Hollander H. Pseudomonas aeruginosa bronchopulmonary infection in late Human Immunodeficiency Virus disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 992-996
110. Deutsches Zentralkomitee zur Bekämpfung der Tuberkulose. Richtlinien zur medikamentösen Behandlung der Tuberkulose im Erwachsenen- und Kindesalter. Pneumologie 2001; 55: 494-511
111. Schaberg T. HIV und Tuberkulose. In: Konietzko N, Loddenkemper R (Hrsg): Tuberkulose. Stuttgart: Thieme Verlag, 1999: 199-214
112. Burman WJ, Jones BE. Treatment of HIV-related tuberculosis in the era of effective antiretroviral therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 7-12
113. Gordin FM, Sullam PM, Shafran SD et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled study of rifabutin added to a regimen of clarithromycin and ethambutol for treatment of disseminated infection with Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 28: 1080-1085
114. Glasmacher A, Just-Nübling G, Molitor E. Therapie invasiver Mykosen bei neutropenischen Patienten mit hämatologischen Systemerkrankungen. Dtsch Med Wschr 1998; 123: 191-194
115. Walsh TJ, Finberg RW, Arndt C et al. Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 764-771
116. Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD et al. Practice guidelines for the treatment of candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 662-678
117. Bodey GP. The epidemiology of Candida glabrata and Candida albicans fungemia in immunocompromised patients with cancer. Am J Med 2002; 112: 380-385
118. Denning DW, Lee JY, Hosttler JS. Mycoses Study Group multicenter trial of oral itraconazole therapy for invasive aspergillosis. Am J Med 1994; 97: 135-144
119. Denning DW. Efficacy and safety of voriconazole in the treatment of acute invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 563-571
120. Arathoon EG. Randomized, double blind, multicenter study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for treatment of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 451-457
121. Reichenberger F, Habicht J, Kaim A et al. Lung resection for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients with hematologic diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158: 885-890
122. Sattler FR, Cowan R, Nielsen DM et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with pentamidine for treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 280-287
123. Hughes W, Leoung G, Kramer F et al. Comparison of Atovaquone (566C80) with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole to treat Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1521-1527
124. Safrin S, Lee BL, Sande MA. Adjunctive folinic acid with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients is associated with an increased risk of therapeutic failure and death. J Infect Dis 1994; 170: 912-917
125. Conte JE, Chernoff D, Feigal DW et al. Intravenous or inhaled pentamidine for treating Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 203-209
126. Medina I, Mills J, Leoung G et al. Oral therapy for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immonodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 776-782
127. Bozzette SA, Sattler FR, Chiu J et al. A controlled trial of early adjunctive treatment with corticosteroids for Pneumocyctis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1451-1457
128. Pareja JG, Garland R, Koziel H. Use of adjunctive corticosteroids in severe adult non-HIV Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chest 1998; 113: 1215-1224
129. Blanshard C, Benhamou Y, Dohin E et al. Treatment of AIDS-associated gastrointestinal cytomegalovirus infection with foscarnet and ganciclovir: A randomized comparison. J Infect Dis 1995; 172: 622-628
130. Hecht DW, Snydman DR, Crumpacker CS et al. Ganciclovir for treatment of renal transplant - associated primary cytomegalovirus pneumonia. J Infect Dis 1988; 157: 187-190
131. Martin DF, Sierra-Madero J, Walmsley S et al. A controlled trial of valganciclovir as induction therapy for Cytomegalovirus Retinitis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1119-1126
132. Kern WV, Beyer J. Böhme A et al. Infektionsprophylaxe bei neutropenischen Patienten. Dtsch Med Wschr 125; 2000: 1582-1588
133. Deutsch E, End A, Grimm M et al. Early bacterial infections in lung transplant recipients. Chest 1993; 104: 1412-1416
134. Chaparro C, Kesten S. Infections in lung transplant recipients. Clin Chest Med 1997; 18: 339-351
135. Corris PA. Prophylaxis post-transplant. The role of monitoring surveillance bronchoscopy and antimicrobials. Clin Chest Med 1997; 18: 311-318
136. STIKO/Ständige Impfkommission. Impfempfehlungen der Ständigen Impfkommission am Robert Koch-Institut. Epidemiologisches Bulletin 2000; 2: 9-20
137. Gebo KA, Moore RD, Keruly JC et al. Risk factors for pneumococcal disease in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Infect Dis 1996; 173: 857-862
138. Ammann AJ, Addiego J, Wara DW. Polyvalent pneumococcal-polysaccharide immunization of patients with sickle-cell anemia and patients with splenectomy. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 897-900
139. Chattopadhyay B. Splenectomy, pneumococcal vaccination and antibiotic prophylaxis. Br J Hosp Med 1989; 41: 172-174
140. Funk EM, Schlimok G, Ehret W et al. Standortbestimmung der Impfund Antibiotikaprophylaxe bei Splenektomie. Teil I: Erwachsene. Chirurg 1997; 68: 586-590
141. Di Padova F, Durig M, Wadstrom J et al. Role of spleen in immune response to polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine. Br Med J 1983; 287: 1829-1832
142. ATS/CDC Statement Committee on Latent Tuberculosis Infection. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. MMWR 2000; 49: 1-51
143. Gordin F, Chaisson RE, Matts JP et al. Rifampin and Pyrazinamide vs Isoniazid for prevention of tuberculosis in HIV-infected persons. JAMA 2000; 283: 1445-1449
144. American Thoracic Society. Update: Fatal and severe liver injuries associated with rifampin and pyrazinamide for latent tuberculosis infection, and revisions in American Thoracic Society /CDC recommendations - United States 2001. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 1319-1320
145. Pierce M, Crampton S, Henry D et al. A randomized trial of clarithromycin as prophylaxis against disseminaed Mycobacterium avium complex infection in patients with advanced acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 384-391
146. Havlir DV, Dube MP, Sattler FR et al. Prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex with weekly Azithromycin, daily Rifabutin, or both. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 392-398
147. Gryzan S, Paradis IL, Zeevi A et al. Unexpectedly high incidence of Pneumocystis carinii infection after lung-heart transplantation. Implications for lung defense and allograft survival. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137: 1268-1274
148. Gordon SM, LaRosa SP, Kalmadi S et al. Should prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in solid organ transplant recipients ever be discontinued? Clin Inf Dis 1999; 28: 240-246
149. Olsen SL, Renlund DG, O'Conell JB. Prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in cardiac transplant recipients by trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Transplantation 1993; 56: 359-362
150. Fishman JA. Pneumocystis carinii and parasitic infections in transplantation. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1995; 9: 1045-1047
151. Schneider ME, Hoepelman AIM, Eeftinck Schattenkerk JKM et al. A controlled trial of aerosolized pentamidine or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis against pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1836-1840
152. Bozzette SA, Finkelstein DM, Spector SA. A randomized trial of three antipneumocystis agents in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J M 1995; 332: 693-699
153. Hill HE, Wallace M, Kennedy C. Prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with dapsone; an evaluation of toxicity and cross-reactivity with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Amsterdam: International Conference on AIDS, 1992; PoB 3304
154. Bucher HC, Griffith LI, Guyatt GH et al. Meta-analyses of prophylactic treatments against PCP and Toxoplasma encephalitis in HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1997; 15: 104-114
155. Vernovsky I, Dellaripa PF. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia prophylaxis in patients with rheumatic diseases undergoing immunsuppressive therapy. J Clin Rheumatol 2000; 6: 94-101
156. Paradowski LJ. Saprophytic fungal infections and lung transplantation - revisited. J Heart Lung Transplant 1997; 16: 524-531
157. Duncan SR, Grgurich WF, Iacono AT et al. A comparison of ganciclovir and acyclovir to prevent cytomegalovirus after lung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 146-152
158. Calvo V, Borro JM, Morales P et al. Antifungal prophylaxis during the early postoperative period of lung transplantation. Chest 1999; 115: 1301-1304
159. Hamacher J, Spiliopoulos A, Kurt AM et al. Pre-emptive therapy with azoles in lung transplant patients. Eur Respir J 1999; 13: 180-186
160. Duncan SR, Gregurich WF, Iacono AT et al. A comparison of ganciclovir and acyclovir to prevent cytomegalovirus after lung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 146-152
161. Lowance D, Neumayer HH, Legendre CM. Valacyclovir for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease after renal transplantation. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 1462-1470
162. Gutierrez CA, Chaparro C, Krajden M et al. Cytomegalovirus viremia in lung transplant recipients receiving ganciclovir and immune globulin. Chest 1998; 113: 924-932
163. Gane E, Saliba F, Valdecasas GJ. Randomized trial of efficacy and safety of oral ganciclovir in the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in liver transplant recipients. Lancet 1997; 350: 1729-1733
164. Kusne S, Grossi P, Irish W et al. Cytomegalovirus pp65 antigenemia as a guide for preemptive therapy: a cost effective strategy for prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in adult liver transplant recipients. Transplantation 1999; 68: 1125-1131
165. Egan JJ, Lomax J, Barber L et al. Preemptive treatment for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in lung and heart transplant recipients. Transplantation 1998; 65: 747-752
166. Singh N, Paterson DL, Gayowski T et al. Cytomegalovirus antigenemia directed pre-emptive prophylaxis with oral versus i.v. ganciclovir for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in liver transplant recipients: a randomized, controlled trial. Transplantation 2000; 15: 717-722
167. Feinberg JE, Hurwitz S, Cooper D et al. A randomized, double-blind trial of valaciclovir prophylaxis for cytomegalovirus disease in patients with advanced human immunodeficciency virus infections. J Infect Dis 1998; 177: 48-56
168. Freund S, Wagner D, Pethig K et al. Influenza vaccination in heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999; 18: 220-225
169. Gross PA, Hermogenes AW, Sacks HS et al. The efficacy of influenza vaccine in elderly persons: a metaanalysis and review of the literature. Ann Int Med 1995; 123: 518-527
170. Tasker SA, Treanor JJ, Paxton WB et al. Efficacy of influenza vaccination in HIV-infected persons: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131: 430-433