The problem of chronic refractory angina: Report from the ESC Joint Study Group on the treatment of refractory angina

European Heart Journal

Volumn 23, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 355-370

  Mannheimer, C ^a   Camici, P ^b   Chester, M R ^c   Collins, A ^d   DeJongste, M ^e   Eliasson, T ^a   Follath, F ^f   Hellemans, I ^g   Herlitz, J ^h   Luscher T ⁱ   Pasic, M ⁱ   Thelle, D ^j  

^a Multidisciplinary Pain Center   (Sweden)

^b HAMMERSMITH HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c National Refractory Angina Centre   (United Kingdom)

^d TAUNTON AND SOMERSET HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

^f UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^g Sahlgrenska University Hospital ^*

^h SAHLGRENSKA UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

ⁱ DEUTSCHES HERZZENTRUM BERLIN   (Germany)

^j UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

more..

Author keywords

Refractory angina pectoris

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AMLODIPINE; ANGIOGENIC FACTOR; BEPRIDIL; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM ANTAGONIST; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; FELODIPINE; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC AGENT; MOLSIDOMINE; NICORANDIL; NITRATE; OPIATE; SEX HORMONE; UROKINASE; VASCULOTROPIN; VERAPAMIL; WARFARIN;

ANGINA PECTORIS; ANGIOGENESIS; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; COUNTERPULSATION; DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH ROUTE; GANGLION BLOCK; GENE THERAPY; HEART MUSCLE REVASCULARIZATION; HEART REHABILITATION; HEART TRANSPLANTATION; HUMAN; NEUROMODULATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SPINAL CORD STIMULATION; THORAX EPIDURAL ANESTHESIA; TRANSCUTANEOUS NERVE STIMULATION;

ANGINA PECTORIS; HUMANS;

EID: 0036522084     PISSN: 0195668X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/euhj.2001.2706     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Eliasson T, Mannheimer C et al. Spinal cord stimulation in severe angina pectoris - Presentation of current studies, indications and clinical experience. Pain 1996; 65: 169-79.
2. Management of stable angina pectoris. Recommendations of the Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 1997; 18: 394-413.
3. Mulcahy D, Knight C, Stables R. Lasers, burns, cuts, tingles and pumps: A consideration of alternative treatments for intractable angina (editorial). Br Heart J 1994; 71: 406-7.
4. Schoebel F, Frazier H, Jessurun G et al. Refractory angina pectoris in end-stage coronary artery disease: Evolving therapeutic concepts. Am Heart J 1997; 134: 587-602.
5. Chester MR. Chronic refractory angina: Time to sort out a neglected and growing problem. Br J Cardiol 2000; 7: 108-11.
6. ACC/AHA/ACP-ASIM Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Chronic Stable Angina: Executive Summary and Recommendations. A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Management of Patients With Chronic Stable Angina). Circulation 1999; 99: 2829-48.
7. Yusuf S. Design, baseline characteristics, and preliminary clinical results of the Organization to Assess Strategies for Ischemic Syndromes-2 (OASIS-2) trial. Am J Cardiol 1999; 84 (5A): 20M-25M.
8. Cosin J, Asin E, Marrugat J et al. Prevalence of angina pectoris in Spain. PANES Study group. Eur J Epidemiol 1999; 4: 323-30.
9. Brorsson B, Persson H, Landelius P, Werkö L. Smärtor i Bröstet: Operation, Ballongvidgning, Medicinsk Behandling. Stockholm, Sweden: Statens beredning för utvärdering av medicinsk metodik; 1998. Report No.; 140.
10. Mannheimer C. Therapeutic challenges of refractory angina pectoris. In: XXth Congress of the European Society of Cardiology; 1998. Vienna, Austria, 1998: 119.
11. Kannel W, Abbott R. Incidence and prognosis of unrecognised myocardial infarction: An update on the Framingham study. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 114-17.
12. Epstein S, Quyyumi A, Bonow R. Current concepts, myocardial ischemia: Silent or symptomatic. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 1038-43.
13. Schang S, Pepine C. Transient asymptomatic ST segment depression during daily activity. Am J Cardiol 1977; 39: 396-402.
14. Deanfield J, Maseri A, Selwyn A et al. Myocardial ischemia during daily life in patients with stable angina: Its relation to symptoms and heart rate changes. Lancet 1983; 2: 753-8.
15. Quyyumi A, Mockus L, Wright C, Fox K. Morphology of ambulatory ST segment changes in patients with varying severity of coronary artery disease: Investigation of the frequency of nocturnal ischaemia and coronary artery spasm. Br Heart J 1985; 53: 186-93.
16. Klein J, Chao S, Berman D, Rozanski A. Is 'silent' myocardial ischemia really as severe as symptomatic ischemia? The analytical effect of patient selection biases. Circulation 1994; 89: 1958-66.
17. Langer A, Freeman M, Josse R, Steiner G, Armstrong P. Detection of silent myocardial ischemia in diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 1991; 67: 1073-8.
18. Shakespeare C, Katritsis D, Crowther A, Cooper I, Coltart J, Webb-Peploe M. Differences in autonomic function in patients with silent and symptomatic myocardial ischaemia. Br Heart J 1994; 71: 22-9.
19. Collins P, Fox K. Pathophysiology of angina. Lancet 1990; 335: 94-6.
20. Casey K. Match and mismatch: Identifying the neuronal determinants of pain. Ann Int Med 1996; 124: 995-8.
21. Crea F, Pupita G, Galassi A et al. Role of adenosine in pathogenesis of angina pain. Circulation 1990; 81: 164-72.
22. Gaspardone A, Crea F, Tomai F et al. Substance P potentiates the algogenic effects of the intra-arterial infusion of adenosine. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994; 24: 477-82.
23. Crea F, Gaspardone A. New look to an old symptom: Angina pectoris. Circulation 1997; 96: 3766-73.
24. White J. Anatomic pathways and physiologic mechanisms. Circulation 1957; 16: 644-55.
25. Malliani A, Pagani M, Lombardi F. Visceral Versus Somatic Mechanisms. New York, USA: Churchill Livingstone, 1989.
26. Meller S, Gebhart G. Visceral pain: A review of experimental studies. Neuroscience 1992; 48: 501-24.
27. Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science 1965; 150: 971-9.
28. Price D. Psychological Mechanisms of Pain and Analgesia. Seattle, USA: IASP Press, 1999.
29. Rosen S, Paulesu E, Frith C, Frackowiak R, Jones T, Camici P. Central nervous pathways mediating angina pectoris. Lancet 1994; 344: 147-50.
30. Rosen S, Paulesu E, Nihoyannopoulos P et al. Silent ischaemia as a central problem: Regional brain activation compared in silent and painful myocardial ischemia. Ann Int Med 1996; 124: 939-49.
31. Chester M. Draft guidelines for the management of refractory angina on behalf of the UK Refractory Angina Group. Eur Heart J 1999; 20 (Abstr Suppl): 479.
32. Eliasson T. Therapeutic options in severe angina pectoris and end-stage coronary artery disease. In: XXth Congress of the European Society of Cardiology; 1998; Vienna, Austria, 1998: 119.
33. Grambow D, Topol E. Effect of maximal medical therapy on refractoriness of unstable angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1992; 70: 577-81.
34. Nägele H, Kalmar P, Labeck M et al. Transmyokardiale laserrevaskularisation - Behandlungsoption bei der koronaren herzerkrankung. Z Kardiol 1997; 86: 171-8.
35. Knight C, Fox K. Amlodipine vs diltiazem as antianginal treatment to atenolol. Am J Cardiol 1998; 81: 133-6.
36. Dunselman P, Liem A, Verdel G et al. Addition of felodipine to metoprolol vs replacement of metoprolol by felodipine in patients with angina pectoris despite adequate betablockade. Eur Heart J 1997; 18: 1755-64.
37. Emanuelsson H, Egstrup K, Nikus K et al. Antianginal efficacy of the combination of felodipine-metoprolol 10/100 mg compared with each drug alone in patients with stable effort-induced angina pectoris: A multicenter parallel group study. Am Heart J 1999; 137: 854-62.
38. Frishman W, Glasser S, Stone P et al. Comparison of controlled-onset, extended-release verapamil with amlodipine and amlodipine plus atenolol on exercise peformance and ambulatory ischemia in patients with chronic stable angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1999; 83: 507-14.
39. Hollingshead LM, Faulds D, Fitton A. Bepridil. A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in stable angina pectoris. Drugs 1992; 44: 835-57.
40. Narahara KA, Singh BN, Karliner JS, Corday SR, Hossack KF. Bepridil hydrochloride compared with placebo in patients with stable angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1992; 69: 37D-42D.
41. Zusman RM, Higgins J, Christensen D, Boucher CA. Bepridil improves left ventricular performance in patients with angina pectoris. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993; 22: 474-80.
42. Ciopor M, Fischer A, Turina J, Hess O. Influence of combination therapy (isosorbide dinitrate and molsidomine) on the incidence on angina pectoris in patients with coronary heart disease. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 1997; 86: 1849-53.
43. Meyer B, Amann F. Additional antianginal efficacy of amiodarone in patients with limiting angina pectoris. Am Heart J 1993; 125: 996-1001.
44. Andrews T, Raby K, Barry J et al. Effect of cholesterol reduction on myocardial ischemia in patients with coronary disease. Circulation 1997; 95: 324-8.
45. van Boven A, Jukema L, Zwinderman A et al. Reduction of transient myocardial ischemia in addition to the conventional treatment in patients with angina pectoris. Circulation 1996; 94: 1503-5.
46. Pitt B, Waters D, Brown WV et al. Aggressive lipid-lowering therapy compared with angioplasty in stable coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 70-6.
47. Anderson T, Meredith J, Yeung A, Frei B, Selwyn A, Ganz P. The effect of cholesterol-lowering and antioxidant therapy on endothelium-dependent vasomotion. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 488-93.
48. Egashira K, Hirooka Y, Kai H et al. Reduction in serum cholesterol with pravastatin improves endothelium dependent coronary vasomotion in patients with hypercholesterolemia. Circulation 1994; 89: 2519-24.
49. Gotto A. Lipid lowering, regression and coronary events. A review of the Interdisciplinary Council on Lipids and Cardiovascular Risk Intervention. Seventh council meeting. Circulation 1995; 92: 646-56.
50. Leung W, Lau C, Wong C. Beneficial effect of cholesterollowering therapy on coronary endothelium-dependent relaxation in hypercholesterolemic patients. Lancet 1993; 341: 1496-500.
51. Treasure C, Klein J, Weintraub W et al. Beneficial effect of cholsterol-lowering therapy on the coronary endothelium in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 481-7.
52. Leschke M, Schoebel F, Mecklenbeck W et al. Long-term intermittent urokinase therapy in patients with end-stage coronary artery disease and refractory angina pectoris: A randomised dose-response trial. J Am Cardiol 1996; 27: 575-84.
53. Opioid Sensitivity of Non-Cancer Pain. Seattle, USA: IASP Press, 1999.
54. Schenck-Gustafsson K, Swahn E. Guidelines for the European cardiologist concerning hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. Eur Heart J Supplements 2000; 2 (Suppl G): G15-G16.
55. WHO. The Rehabilitation of Patients with Cardiovascular Diseases. Report on a Seminar. EURO 0381. Copenhagen, 1969: WHO, regional office for Europe; 1969.
56. second Joint Task Force of European and other Societies on Coronary Prevention. Prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice. Eur Heart J 1998; 19: 1434-1503.
57. Working group on Rehabilitation of the European Society of Cardiology. Long-term comprehensive care of cardiac patients. Eur Heart J 1992; 13 (Suppl C).
58. Smith S, Blair S, Crique M et al. American Heart Association Consensus statement: Prevention of heart attack and death in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 1995; 92: 2-4.
59. Wenger N, Froelicher E, Smith L et al. Clinical Practice Guideline: Cardiac Rehabilitation. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. AHCPR publication.
60. Amarose-Tupler B, Tapp J, Carida R. Stress management through relaxation and imagery in the treatment of angina pectoris. J Cardiopulm Rehabil 1989; 9: 348-55.
61. Krumholz H, Cohen B, Tsevat J et al. Cost-effectiveness of a smoking cessation program after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 22: 1697-1702.
62. Taylor C, Houston-Miller N, Killen J, DeBusk R. Smoking cessation after acute myocardial infarction: Effects of a nurse-managed intervention. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 118-23.
63. Jorenby D, Leischow S, Nides M et al. A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotine patch, or both for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 685-91.
64. O'Connor G, Buring J, Yusuf S et al. An overview of randomized trials of rehabilitation with exercise after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1989; 80: 234-44.
65. Niebauer J, Hambrecht R, Velich T et al. Attenuated progression of coronary artery disease after 6 years of multifactorial risk intervention. Circulation 1997; 96: 2534-41.
66. Linxue L, Nohara R, Makita S et al. Effect of long-term exercise training on regional myocardial perfusion changes in patients with coronary artery disease. Jpn Circ J 1999; 63: 73-8.
67. Ades P, Grunvald M, Weiss R, Hanson J. Usefulness of myocardial ischemia as predictor of training effect in cardiac rehabilitation after acute myocardial infarction or coronary artery bypass grafting. Am J Cardiol 1989; 63: 1032-6.
68. Leaf D, Kleinman M, Hamilton M, Deitrick R. The exercise-induced oxidative stress paradox: The effects of physical exercise training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 634-8.
69. Mittleman M, Maclure M, Tofler G et al. Triggering of acute myocardial infarction by heavy exertion: Protection against triggering by regular exertion. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1677-83.
70. De Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin J, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: Final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 1999; 99: 779-85.
71. Payne T, Johnson C, Penzien C et al. Chest pain self-management training for patients with coronary artery disease. J Psychosom Res 1994; 38: 409-18.
72. Lewin R. Improving quality of life in patients with angina. Heart 1999; 82: 654-5.
73. Lewin R, Thompson D, Taylor R. Cardiac rehabilitation. Eur Heart J 2000; 21: 860-1.
74. Spinhoven P, Ormel J, Sloekers PP, Kempen GI, Speckens AE, Van Hemert AM. A validation study of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) in different groups of Dutch subjects. Psychol Med 1997; 27: 363-70.
75. Mannheimer C, Carksson C-A, Ericsson K, Vedin A, Wilhelmsson C. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in severe angina pectoris. Eur Heart J 1982; 3: 297-302.
76. Mannheimer C, Carlsson C-A, Emanuelsson H, Vedin A, Waagstein F, Wilhelmsson C. The effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in patients with severe angina pectoris. Circulation 1985; 71: 308-16.
77. Mannheimer C, Carlsson C-A, Vedin A, Wilhelmsson C. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) in angina pectoris. Pain 1986; 26: 291-300.
78. Sanderson J, Tomlinson B, Lau M et al. The effect of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) on autonomic cardiovascular reflexes. Clin Auton Res 1995; 5: 81-4.
79. Sanderson J. Electrical neurostimulators for pain relief in angina. Br Heart J 1990; 63: 141-3.
80. Börjesson M, Eriksson P, Dellborg M, Eliasson T, Mannheimer C. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in unstable angina pectoris. Cor Art Dis 1997; 8: 543-50.
81. Mannheimer C, Augustinsson L-E, Carlsson C-A, Manhem K, Wilhelmsson C. Epidural spinal electrical stimulation in severe angina pectoris. Br Heart J 1988; 59: 56-61.
82. Kujacic V, Eliasson T, Mannheimer C, Jablonskiene D, Augustinsson L-E, Emanuelsson H. Assessment of the influence of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) on left ventricular function in patients with severe angina pectoris: An echocardiographic study. Eur Heart J 1993; 14: 1238-44.
83. Hautvast R, Brouwer J, DeJongste M, Lie K. Effect of spinal cord stimulation on heart rate variability and myocardial ischemia in patients with chronic intractable angina pectoris - A prospective ambulatory electrocardiographic study. Clin Cardiol 1998; 98: 33-8.
84. Sanderson J, Woo K, Chung H, Chan W, Tse L, White H. The effect of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on coronary and systemic haemodynamics in syndrome X. Cor Art Dis 1996; 7: 547-52.
85. Eliasson T, Jern S, Augustinsson L-E, Mannheimer C. Safety aspects of spinal cord stimulation in severe angina pectoris. Cor Art Dis 1994; 5: 845-50.
86. DeJongste M, Hautvast R, Hillege H. Efficacy of spinal cord stimulation as adjuvant therapy for intractable angina pectoris: A prospective, randomized, clinical study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994; 1592-7.
87. Andersen C, Hole P, Oxhoj H. Does pain relief with spinal cord stimulation conceal myocardial infarction? Br Heart J 1994; 71: 419-21.
88. DeJongste M, Haaksma J, Hautvast R et al. Effects of spinal cord stimulation on myocardial ischemia during daily life in patients with severe coronary artery disease. Br Heart J 1994; 71: 413-18.
89. Mannheimer C, Eliasson T, Andersson B et al. Effects of spinal cord stimulation in angina pectoris induced by pacing and possible mechanisms of action. BMJ 1993; 307: 477-80.
90. De Landsherre C, Mannheimer C, Habets A et al. Effect of spinal cord stimulation on regional myocardial perfusion assessed by positron emission tomugraphy. Am J Cardiol 1992; 69: 1143-9.
91. Hautvast R, DeJongste M, Blanksma P et al. Spinal cord stimulation causes redistribution in myocardial perfusion during dipramidole stresss testing in patients with refractory angina pectoris as assessed by 13 NH3-positron emission tomography. Am J Cardiol 1996; 77: 462-7.
92. Mobilia G, Zuin G, Zanco P et al. Effects of spinal cord stimulation on regional myocardial blood flow in patients with refractory angina. A positron emission tomography study. (In italian). G Ital Cardiol 1998; 28: 1113-19.
93. Norrsell H, Eliasson T, Mannheimer C et al. Effects of pacing-induced myocardial stress and spinal cord stimulation on whole body and cardiac norepinephrine spillover. Eur Heart J 1997; 18: 1890-6.
94. Emanuelsson H, Mannheimer C, Waagstein F, Wilhelmsson C. Catecholamine metabolism during pacing-induced angina pectoris and the effect of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Am Heart J 1987; 114: 1360-6.
95. Eliasson T, Mannheimer C, Waagstein F et al. Myocardial turnover of endogenous opioids and calcitonin gene-related peptide in the human heart and the effects of spinal cord stimulation on pacing-induced angina pectoris. Cardiology 1998; 89: 170-7.
96. Sanderson J, Ibrahim B, Waterhouse D, Palmer R. Spinal electrical stimulation for intractable angina - Long-term clinical outcome and safety. Eur Heart J 1994; 15: 810-14.
97. Hautvast R, DeJongste M, Staal M, van Gilst W, Lie K. Spinal cord stimulation in chronic intractable angina pectoris. A randomized, controlled efficacy study. Am Heart J 1998; 136: 1114-20.
98. Greco S, Auriti A, Fiume D et al. Spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of refractory angina pectoris: A two year follow-up. PACE 1999; 22: 26-32.
99. TenVaarwerk I, Jessurun G, DeJongste M et al. Clinical outcome of patients treated with spinal cord stimulation for therapeutically refractory angina pectoris. Heart 1999; 82: 82-8.
100. Mannheimer C, Eliasson T, Augustinsson L-E et al. Electrical stimulation versus coronary artery bypass surgery in severe angina pectoris: The ESBY study. Circulation 1998; 97: 1157-63.
101. Ekre O, Norrsell H, Währborg P, Eliasson T, Mannheimer C. Spinal cord stimulation and coronary artery bypass grafting provide equal improvement in quality of life - Data from the ESBY Study (Abstr). Circulation 2000; Suppl (October 31).
102. De Jongste M. Clinical trials with spinal cord and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Eur Heart J (Abstr Suppl) 2000; 21: 128.
103. Bagger J, Jensen B, Johannsen G. Long-term outcome of spinal cord electrical stimulation in patients with refractory chest pain. Clin Cardiol 1998; 21: 286-8.
104. Blomberg S, Curelaru I, Emanuelsson H, Herlitz J, Pontén J, Ricksten S-E. Thoracic epidural anesthesia in patients with unstable angina pectoris. Eur Heart J 1989; 10: 437-44.
105. Blomberg S, Emanuelsson H, Herlitz J, Pontén J, Ricksten S-E. Thoracic epidural anasthesia in patients with unstable angina pectoris. Anest Analg 1989; 69: 558-62.
106. Blomberg S, Ricksten S-E. Thoracic epidural anaesthesia decrease the coincidence of ventricular arrhythmia during acute myocardial ischemia in the anaesthetized rat. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1988; 32: 173-8.
107. Olausson K, Magnusdottir H, Lurje L, Wennerblom B, Emanuelsson H, Ricksten S. Anti-ischemic and anti-anginal effects of thoracic epidural anesthesia versus those of conventional medical therapy in the treatment of severe refractory unstable angina pectoris. Circulation 1997; 96: 2178-82.
108. Kock M, Blomberg S, Emanuelsson H, Lomsky M, Strömblad S-O, Ricksten S-E. Thoracic epidural anesthesia improves global and regional left ventricular function during stress-induced myocardal ischemia in patients with coronary artery disease. Anesth Analg 1990; 71: 625-30.
109. Gramling-Babb P, Miller M, Reeves S, Roy R, Zile M. Treatment of medically and surgically refractory angina pectoris with high thoracic epidural analgesia: Initial clinical experience. Am Heart J 1997; 133: 648-55.
110. Francois-Franck C. Signification physiologique de la résection du sympathique dans la maladie de basendour, l'èpilepsie, l'idiotie et de glaucome. Bull Acad Med 1899; 41: 565-94.
111. Jonnesco T. Angine de poitrine guérie par la résection du sympathique cervicothoracique. Bull Acad Med 1920; 84: 93-102.
112. Lindgren I. Angina pectoris, a clinical study with special reference to neurosurgical treatment. Acta Med Scand 1950; 1: 1-141.
113. Drott C, Göthberg G, Claes G. Endoscopic procedures of the upper-thoracic sympathetic chain. Arch Surg 1993; 128: 237-41.
114. Claes G, Göthberg C. Endoscopic transthoracic electrocautery of sympathetic chain for palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis. Br J Surg 1991; 78: 760.
115. Wetterwik C, Claes G, Drott C et al. Endoscopic transthoracic sympathicotomy for severe angina. Lancet 1995; 345: 97-8.
116. Claes G, Drott C, Wettervik C et al. Angina pectoris treated by thoracoscopic sympathectomy. Cardiovasc Surg 1996; 4: 830-1.
117. Tygesen H, Claes G, Drott C et al. Effect of endoscopic transthoracic sympathicotomy on heart rate variability in severe angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1997; 79: 1447-52.
118. Wiener L, Cox W. Influence of stellate ganglion block on angina pectoris and the post-exercise electrocardiogram. Am J Med Sci 1966; 252: 289-95.
119. Hammond C, Leach A, Chester M. Temporary sympathectomy for refractory angina (Abstr). Br Med J 1999; 81 (Suppl 1): 19.
120. Titley G, Collins P. Interrupting the sympathetic outflow in causalgia and reflex sympathetic blockage: Clinics take precautions, but few follow guidelines. BMJ 1998; 317: 753.
121. Stellate ganglion block. In: Prys-Roberts C, Brown R, eds. International Practice of Anaesthesia. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996: 2/141/6-2/141/7.
122. Stellate ganglion block. In: Lee J, ed. Lee's Synopsis of Anaesthesia. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1993: 637-90.
123. Masuda A, Fujiki A. Sinus arrest after right stellate ganglion block. Anesth Analg 1994; 79: 607.
124. Murphy. Chronic pain: Stellate ganglion blocks. In: Miller R, ed. Anesthesia, 3rd Edn. New York, Edinburgh, London, Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone, 1990: 1936-7.
125. Arnér S. Stellate Blockade. Personal communication, 1999.
126. Wedel, Brown. Nerve blocks: Stellate ganglion block. In: Miller R, ed. Anesthesia, 3rd Edn. New York, Edinburgh, London, Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone, 1990: 1431.
127. Schott G. Interrupting the sympathetic outflow in causalgia and reflex sympathetic dystrophy. A futile procedure for many patients. BMJ 1998; 316: 792-3.
128. Chester M, Hammond C, Leach A. Long-term benefits of stellate ganglion block in severe chronic refractory angina. Pain 2000; 87: 103-5.
129. Chester MR, Hammond CH, Leach A. Long-term benefits of stellate ganglion block in severe chronic refractory angina. Pain 2000; 87: 103-5.
130. Sen P, Udwadia T, Kinare S, Parulkar G. Transmyocardal acupuncture: a new approach to myocardial revascularization. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1965; 50: 181-9.
131. Mirhoseini M, Cayton M. Revascularization of the heart by laser. J Microsurg 1981; 2: 253-60.
132. Krabatsch T, Tambeur L, Lieback E, Shaper F, Hetzer R. Transmyocardial laser revascularization in the treatment of end-stage coronary artery disease. Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1998; 4: 64-71.
133. Horvath K, Cohn L, Cooley D et al. Transmyocardial laser revascularization: Results of a multicenter trial with transmyocardial laser revascularization used as sole therapy for end-stage coronary artery disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 113: 645-54.
134. Nagele H, Stubbe H, Nienaber, Rodiger W. Results of transmyocardial laser revascularization in nonrevascularizable coronary artery disease after 3 years follow-up. Eur Heart J 1998; 19: 1523-30.
135. Lange RA, Hillis LD. Transmyocardial laser revascularization. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1075-6.
136. Gassler N, Wintzer H-O, Stubbe H-M, Wulbrand A, Helmchen U. Transmyocardial laser revascularization: Histologic features in human nonresponder myocardium. Circulation 1997; 95: 371-5.
137. Leszek R, Rainer M, Adolfo B, Dirk G, Christian B. Transmyocardial laser revascularization: Lack of channel patency in an experimental pig model. Circulation 1996; 94 (Suppl 1): I-476.
138. Aaberge L, Nordstrand K, Dragsund M et al. Transmyocardial revascularization with CO2 laser in patients with refractory angina pectoris. Clinical results from the Norwegian randomized trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35: 1170-7.
139. Allen KB, Dowling RD, Fudge TL et al. Comparison of transmyocardial revascularization with medical therapy in patients with refractory angina. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1029-36.
140. Burkhoff D, Schmidt S, Schulman S et al. Transmyocardial laser revascularisation compared with continued medical therapy for treatment of refractory angina pectoris: A prospective randomised trial. Lancet 1999; 354: 885-90.
141. Frazier OH, March RJ, Horvath KA. Transmyocardial revascularization with a carbon dioxide laser in patients with end-stage coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1021-8.
142. 2 laser: One year results of a randomized, controlled study. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1999; 11: 12-18.
143. Schofield PM, Sharples LD, Caine N et al. Transmyocardial laser revascularisation in patients with refractory angina: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999; 353: 519-24.
144. Rimoldi O, Burns SM, Rosen SD et al. Measurement of myocardial blood flow with positron emission tomography before and after transmyocardial laser revascularization. Circulation 1999; 100 (Suppl 2): II-134-II-138.
145. Kwong KF, Schuessler RB, Kanellopoulos GK, Saffitz JE, Sundt TM, III. Nontransmural laser treatment incompletely denervates canine myocardium. Circulation 1998; 98 (Suppl II): II-67-II-71.
146. Oesterle SN, Reifart NJ, Meier B, Lauer B, Schuler GC. Initial results of laser-based percutaneous myocardial revascularization for angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1998; 82: 659-62.
147. Laham R, Simons M, Pearlman J, Yaron U, Baim D. Biosense catheter direct laser myocardial revascularisation improves 30 day angina class, regional wall motion and perfusion of the treated zone(s) using MRI (abstract). J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 33: 333A.
148. Shawl F, Domanski M, Saul U et al. Procedural results and early clinical outcome of percutaneous transluminal myocardial revascularization. Am J Cardiol 1999; 83: 498.
149. Lauer B, Junghans U, Stahl F et al. Catheter-based percutaneous myocardial laser revascularization in patients with end-stage coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 34: 1663.
150. Carmeliet P. Basic concepts of (myocardial) angiogenesis: Role of vascular endothelial growth factor and angiopoietin. Curr Intervent Cardiol Reports 1999; 1: 322-35.
151. Asahara T, Murohara T, Sullivan A et al. Isolation of putative progenitor endothelial cells for angiogenesis. Science 1997; 275: 964-7.
152. Isner J. Vascular endothelial growth factor: Gene therapy and therapeutic angiogenesis. Am J Cardiol 1998; 82: 63S-64S.
153. Carmeliet P. Mechanisms of arteriogenesis and arteriogenesis. Mat Med 2000; 6: 389-95.
154. Tio R, Tkebuchava T, Scheuermann T et al. Intramyocardial gene therapy with naked DNA encoding vascular endothelial growth factor improves collateral flow to ischemic myocardium. Hum Gene Ther 1999; 10: 2953-60.
155. Losordo D, Vale P, Isner J. Gene therapy for myocardial angiogenesis. Am Heart J 1999; 138: 132-41.
156. Vale P, Losordo D, Milliken C, Esakof D, Isner J. Percutaneous myocardial gene transfer of phVEGF-2. Circulation 1999; 100: 2462-63.
157. Arora R, Chou T, Jain D et al. The multicenter study of enhanced external counterpulsation (MUST - EECP): Effect of EECP on exercise-induced myocardial ischemia and anginal episodes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 33: 1833.
158. Urano H, Ikeda J, Ueno T, Matsumoto T, Murohara T, Imaizumi T. Enhanced external counterpulsation improves exercise tolerance, reduces exercise-induced myocardial ischemia and improves left ventricular diastolic filling in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37: 93-9.