Extreme-right parties in Eastern Europe

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 5-27

  Mudde, Cas ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Communist parties; Eastern Europe; Extreme right; Nationalism; Party ideology; Political parties; Post Communism; Red brown coalition; Zhirinovsky

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034388644     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00313220008559132     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. The term 'extreme-right parties' refers to political parties with a core ideology that includes (at least) the features of nationalism, xenophobia, welfare chauvinism, and law and order; see C. Mudde, The Ideology of the Extreme Right (Manchester: Manchester University Press 2000). Earlier versions of this article were presented at the conference, 'Racism and responsibility: thirty years of Patterns of Prejudice', London, 20-2 December 1997, and the ASN Third Annual Convention, New York, 16-19 April 1998. I want to thank Zsolt Enyedi, Michael Shafir and the Central European University students of my 1998 seminar, 'The extreme right in Europe', for their valuable comments on earlier versions.
2. See, for example, T. S. Szayna, 'Ultra-nationalism in Central Europe', Orbis, vol. 37, no. 4, 1993, 527-50; V. Bogdanor, 'Overcoming the twentieth century: democracy and nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe', Political Quarterly, vol. 66, no. 1, 1995, 84-97; R. Pearson, 'The making of '89: nationalism and the dissolution of Communist Eastern Europe', Nations and Nationalism, vol. 1, no. 1, 1995, 69-79.
3. See, for example, T. S. Szayna, 'Ultra-nationalism in Central Europe', Orbis, vol. 37, no. 4, 1993, 527-50; V. Bogdanor, 'Overcoming the twentieth century: democracy and nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe', Political Quarterly, vol. 66, no. 1, 1995, 84-97; R. Pearson, 'The making of '89: nationalism and the dissolution of Communist Eastern Europe', Nations and Nationalism, vol. 1, no. 1, 1995, 69-79.
4. See, for example, T. S. Szayna, 'Ultra-nationalism in Central Europe', Orbis, vol. 37, no. 4, 1993, 527-50; V. Bogdanor, 'Overcoming the twentieth century: democracy and nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe', Political Quarterly, vol. 66, no. 1, 1995, 84-97; R. Pearson, 'The making of '89: nationalism and the dissolution of Communist Eastern Europe', Nations and Nationalism, vol. 1, no. 1, 1995, 69-79.
5. S. Fischer-Galati, 'The political right in Eastern Europe in historical perspective', in J. Held (ed.), Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990s (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs 1993), 12.
6. See also K. von Beyme, 'Parties in the process of consolidation in East Central Europe', Budapest Papers on Democratic Transition, no. 256, 1999, 16.
7. On ERPs in Western Europe, see P. Ignazi, 'The silent counter-revolution: hypotheses on the emergence of extreme right wing parties in Europe', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 22, nos 1-2, 1992, 3-34; on ERPs in Eastern Europe, see M. Shafir, 'Marginalisation or mainstream? The extreme right in post-Communist Romania', in P. Hainsworth (ed.), The Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream (London: Cassell 2000); on East European parties in general, see M. Waller, 'Party inheritances and party identities', in G. Pridham and P. G. Lewis (eds), Stabilising Fragile Democracies. Comparing New Party Systems in Southern and Eastern Europe (London: Routledge 1996), 23-43.
8. On ERPs in Western Europe, see P. Ignazi, 'The silent counter-revolution: hypotheses on the emergence of extreme right wing parties in Europe', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 22, nos 1-2, 1992, 3-34; on ERPs in Eastern Europe, see M. Shafir, 'Marginalisation or mainstream? The extreme right in post-Communist Romania', in P. Hainsworth (ed.), The Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream (London: Cassell 2000); on East European parties in general, see M. Waller, 'Party inheritances and party identities', in G. Pridham and P. G. Lewis (eds), Stabilising Fragile Democracies. Comparing New Party Systems in Southern and Eastern Europe (London: Routledge 1996), 23-43.
9. On ERPs in Western Europe, see P. Ignazi, 'The silent counter-revolution: hypotheses on the emergence of extreme right wing parties in Europe', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 22, nos 1-2, 1992, 3-34; on ERPs in Eastern Europe, see M. Shafir, 'Marginalisation or mainstream? The extreme right in post-Communist Romania', in P. Hainsworth (ed.), The Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream (London: Cassell 2000); on East European parties in general, see M. Waller, 'Party inheritances and party identities', in G. Pridham and P. G. Lewis (eds), Stabilising Fragile Democracies. Comparing New Party Systems in Southern and Eastern Europe (London: Routledge 1996), 23-43.
10. For example, K. von Beyme, Systemwechsel in Osteuropa (Frankfurt: Suhrkarnp 1994); K. von Beyme, 'Rechtsextremismus in Osteuropa', in J. W. Falter, H.-G. Jaschke and J. R. Winkler (eds), Rechtsextremismus. Ergebnisse und Perspektiven der Forschung (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1996), 423-42; and G. Mesežnikov, 'The parliamentary elections 1994: a confirmation of the split of the party system in Slovakia', in S. Szomolányi and G. Mesežnikov (eds), Slovakia Parliamentary Elections 1994 (Bratislava: Slovak Political Science Association 1994), 103-13.
11. For example, K. von Beyme, Systemwechsel in Osteuropa (Frankfurt: Suhrkarnp 1994); K. von Beyme, 'Rechtsextremismus in Osteuropa', in J. W. Falter, H.-G. Jaschke and J. R. Winkler (eds), Rechtsextremismus. Ergebnisse und Perspektiven der Forschung (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1996), 423-42; and G. Mesežnikov, 'The parliamentary elections 1994: a confirmation of the split of the party system in Slovakia', in S. Szomolányi and G. Mesežnikov (eds), Slovakia Parliamentary Elections 1994 (Bratislava: Slovak Political Science Association 1994), 103-13.
12. For example, K. von Beyme, Systemwechsel in Osteuropa (Frankfurt: Suhrkarnp 1994); K. von Beyme, 'Rechtsextremismus in Osteuropa', in J. W. Falter, H.-G. Jaschke and J. R. Winkler (eds), Rechtsextremismus. Ergebnisse und Perspektiven der Forschung (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1996), 423-42; and G. Mesežnikov, 'The parliamentary elections 1994: a confirmation of the split of the party system in Slovakia', in S. Szomolányi and G. Mesežnikov (eds), Slovakia Parliamentary Elections 1994 (Bratislava: Slovak Political Science Association 1994), 103-13.
13. There are clear similarities between these types and Waller's. Roughly speaking, the pre-Communist type corresponds with the 'revived' party, although it does not require that there is direct organizational continuity. The Communist ERP resembles both Waller's 'Communist' and 'block' parties, in the sense that they locate their identity in the Communist period. The post-Communist ERP, finally, corresponds approximately to the 'liberation' movement, even though post-Communist ERPs do not need to have been already active during the (latter stages of) the Communist period.
14. I exclude (most) neo-Nazi groups, which I consider to be post-Communist ERPs, as they take their ideas and symbols from contemporary neo-Nazi groups in the West rather than from the original Nazi movement in Germany or their own country.
15. Shafir distinguishes only two types, very similar to my pre-Communist and Communist types, and some of the parties he categorizes as 'party of radical return' (i.e. pre-Communist), I would label 'post-Communist'.
16. R. Austin, 'Albania', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 72-4.
17. The PLL polled just 3 per cent in the 1997 election. However, it does have two MPs in the current Albanian parliament, who were elected on another party ticket; H. Darbishire, 'Albania', in Jean-Yves Camus (ed.), Extremism in Europe (Paris: Editions de L'Aube 1998), 9-27.
18. S. White, M. Wyman and O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Parties and politics in post-Communist Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 28, no. 2, 1995, 186.
19. See, for example, M. Cox, 'After Stalinism: the extreme right in Russia, East Germany and Eastern Europe', in P. Hainsworth (ed.), The Extreme Right in Europe and the USA (London: Pinter 1992), 270-4; and V. Krasnov, 'Pamiat: Russian right-wing radicalism', in P. H. Merkl and L. Weinberg (eds), Encounters with the Contemporary Radical Right (Boulder, CO and Oxford: Westview Press 1993), 111-31.
20. See, for example, M. Cox, 'After Stalinism: the extreme right in Russia, East Germany and Eastern Europe', in P. Hainsworth (ed.), The Extreme Right in Europe and the USA (London: Pinter 1992), 270-4; and V. Krasnov, 'Pamiat: Russian right-wing radicalism', in P. H. Merkl and L. Weinberg (eds), Encounters with the Contemporary Radical Right (Boulder, CO and Oxford: Westview Press 1993), 111-31.
21. For example, see Krasnov, and B. van der Plas, Rechts in Rusland (Breda: Papieren Tijger 1996).
22. See S. Oskar, K. Kertikov and M. Lenkova, 'Bulgaria', in Centre européen de recherche et d'action sur le racisme et antisémitisme (CERA), Extremism from the Atlantic to the Urals (Paris: CERA 1997), 65-8. Recently, Gelemenov founded another political party, with the deceptive name Hristiandemokraticheska partia (Christian Democratic Party); see M. Lenkova, 'Bulgaria', in Camus (ed.), 101.
23. See S. Oskar, K. Kertikov and M. Lenkova, 'Bulgaria', in Centre européen de recherche et d'action sur le racisme et antisémitisme (CERA), Extremism from the Atlantic to the Urals (Paris: CERA 1997), 65-8. Recently, Gelemenov founded another political party, with the deceptive name Hristiandemokraticheska partia (Christian Democratic Party); see M. Lenkova, 'Bulgaria', in Camus (ed.), 101.
24. Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR), Antisemitism World Report 1997 (London: JPR 1997), 127;
25. P. E. Mitev, 'The party manifestos for the Bulgarian 1994 electiors', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, vol. 13, no. 1, 1997, 75.
26. See also A. Braun, 'The incomplete revolutions: the rise of extremism in East-Central Europe and the former Soviet Union', in A. Braun and S. Scheinberg (eds), The Extrem? Right: Freedom and Security at Risk (Boulder, CO and Oxford: Westview Press 1997), 140.
27. For Bulgaria, see Mitev. For Romania, see K. Verdery, 'Nationalism and national sentiment in Romania', Slavic Review, vol. 52, no. 2, 1993, 179-203; V. Tismaneanu and D. Pavel, 'Romania's mystical revolutionaries: the generation of angst and adventure revisited', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 8, no. 3, 1994, 402-38; M. Temple, 'The politicization of history: Marshal Antonescu and Romania', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 10, no. 3, 1996, 457-503; and M. Shafir, 'Marshal Antonescu's postcommunist rehabilitation: cui bono?', in R. L. Braham (ed.), The Destruction of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews during the Antonescu Era (New York: Columbia University Press 1997), 349-410.
28. For Bulgaria, see Mitev. For Romania, see K. Verdery, 'Nationalism and national sentiment in Romania', Slavic Review, vol. 52, no. 2, 1993, 179-203; V. Tismaneanu and D. Pavel, 'Romania's mystical revolutionaries: the generation of angst and adventure revisited', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 8, no. 3, 1994, 402-38; M. Temple, 'The politicization of history: Marshal Antonescu and Romania', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 10, no. 3, 1996, 457-503; and M. Shafir, 'Marshal Antonescu's postcommunist rehabilitation: cui bono?', in R. L. Braham (ed.), The Destruction of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews during the Antonescu Era (New York: Columbia University Press 1997), 349-410.
29. For Bulgaria, see Mitev. For Romania, see K. Verdery, 'Nationalism and national sentiment in Romania', Slavic Review, vol. 52, no. 2, 1993, 179-203; V. Tismaneanu and D. Pavel, 'Romania's mystical revolutionaries: the generation of angst and adventure revisited', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 8, no. 3, 1994, 402-38; M. Temple, 'The politicization of history: Marshal Antonescu and Romania', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 10, no. 3, 1996, 457-503; and M. Shafir, 'Marshal Antonescu's postcommunist rehabilitation: cui bono?', in R. L. Braham (ed.), The Destruction of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews during the Antonescu Era (New York: Columbia University Press 1997), 349-410.
30. For Bulgaria, see Mitev. For Romania, see K. Verdery, 'Nationalism and national sentiment in Romania', Slavic Review, vol. 52, no. 2, 1993, 179-203; V. Tismaneanu and D. Pavel, 'Romania's mystical revolutionaries: the generation of angst and adventure revisited', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 8, no. 3, 1994, 402-38; M. Temple, 'The politicization of history: Marshal Antonescu and Romania', East European Politics and Societies, vol. 10, no. 3, 1996, 457-503; and M. Shafir, 'Marshal Antonescu's postcommunist rehabilitation: cui bono?', in R. L. Braham (ed.), The Destruction of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews during the Antonescu Era (New York: Columbia University Press 1997), 349-410.
31. See K. Gebert, 'Anti-semitism in the 1990 Polish presidential election', Social Research, vol. 58, no. 4, 1991, 723-55; and A. J. Prazmowska, 'The new right in Poland: nationalism, anti-semitism and parliamentarism', in L. Cheles, R. Ferguson and M. Vaughan (eds), The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe (Harlow: Longman 1995), 198-214.
32. See K. Gebert, 'Anti-semitism in the 1990 Polish presidential election', Social Research, vol. 58, no. 4, 1991, 723-55; and A. J. Prazmowska, 'The new right in Poland: nationalism, anti-semitism and parliamentarism', in L. Cheles, R. Ferguson and M. Vaughan (eds), The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe (Harlow: Longman 1995), 198-214.
33. L. Volovici, 'Antisemitism in post-Communist Eastern Europe: a marginal or central issue?', Analysis of Current Trends in Antisemitism, no. 5, 1994, 7-8; E. Kulakowska, 'Poland', in CERA, 203.
34. L. Volovici, 'Antisemitism in post-Communist Eastern Europe: a marginal or central issue?', Analysis of Current Trends in Antisemitism, no. 5, 1994, 7-8; E. Kulakowska, 'Poland', in CERA, 203.
35. JPR, 259; T. S. Szayna, 'The extreme-right political movements in post-Communist Central Europe', in P. H. Merkl and L. Weinberg (eds), The Revival of Right-wing Extremism in the Nineties (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass 1997), 120-1.
36. See T. Kuzio, 'Radical nationalist parties and movements in contemporary Ukraine before and after independence: the right and its politics 1989-1994', Nationalities Papers, vol. 25, no. 2, 1997, 211-42; and A. Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s. A Minority Faith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997).
37. See T. Kuzio, 'Radical nationalist parties and movements in contemporary Ukraine before and after independence: the right and its politics 1989-1994', Nationalities Papers, vol. 25, no. 2, 1997, 211-42; and A. Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s. A Minority Faith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997).
38. Wilson, 136-7.
39. B. Nahaylo, 'Ukraine', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 42-9; J. Martyniuk, 'Ukraine', in CERA, 290-9; T. Kuzio, 'Radical right parties and civic groups in Belarus and the Ukraine', in Merkl and Weinberg (eds), Revival of Right-wing Extremism, 227.
40. B. Nahaylo, 'Ukraine', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 42-9; J. Martyniuk, 'Ukraine', in CERA, 290-9; T. Kuzio, 'Radical right parties and civic groups in Belarus and the Ukraine', in Merkl and Weinberg (eds), Revival of Right-wing Extremism, 227.
41. B. Nahaylo, 'Ukraine', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 42-9; J. Martyniuk, 'Ukraine', in CERA, 290-9; T. Kuzio, 'Radical right parties and civic groups in Belarus and the Ukraine', in Merkl and Weinberg (eds), Revival of Right-wing Extremism, 227.
42. J. A. Irvine, 'Ultranationalist ideology and state-building in Croatia, 1990-1996', Problems of Post-Communism, vol. 44, no. 4, 1997, 30-43.
43. See, for example, N. Zakošek, 'In gefährliche Nähe der Macht', Ost-West Gegeninformationen, vol. 6, no. 2, 1994, 8-11; and J. A. Irvine, 'Nationalism and the extreme right in the former Yugoslavia', in Cheles et al. (eds), 145-73.
44. See, for example, N. Zakošek, 'In gefährliche Nähe der Macht', Ost-West Gegeninformationen, vol. 6, no. 2, 1994, 8-11; and J. A. Irvine, 'Nationalism and the extreme right in the former Yugoslavia', in Cheles et al. (eds), 145-73.
45. See Zakošek, and Irvine, 'Nationalism and the extreme right'. On the HOS, see P. Moore, 'Croatia', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 80-2.
46. Irvine, 'Ultranationalist ideology', 32. See also D. Hedl, 'Croatia: in Tudjman's orbit', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 42-3.
47. Irvine, 'Ultranationalist ideology', 32. See also D. Hedl, 'Croatia: in Tudjman's orbit', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 42-3.
48. F. Hartmann, 'Yugoslavia (former)', in CERA, 312. There are also a plethora of other small pravaši parties, i.e. adhering to Starcevic's ideals: some are split-offs from the HSP - such as the Croatian Pure Rights Party (HCSP), the New Croatian Right (NHP) and the Independent Party of Rights (NSP) - while others are linked to émigré groups - such as the Croatian Republican Party (HRS), the Croatian State-Building Movement (HDP) and the Hrvatski Oslobodilački Pokret (HOP, Croatian Liberation Movement). See Irvine, 'Ultranationalist ideology', 33.
49. J. Vander Velpen, Daar komen ze aangemarcheerd. Extreem-rechts in Europa (Berchem: Papieren Tijger 1992), 171-5, and Moore.
50. Zakošek; I. Kearns, 'Croatian politics: the new authoritarianism', Political Quarterly, vol. 67, no. 1, 1996, 26-35.
51. Most notably of a Herzegovian/émigré faction, including people like Gojko Šušak and Vice Vukojevic; see Zakošek, and Irvine, 'Ultranationalist ideology', 33.
52. See G. Uzelak, 'Franjo Tudjman's nationalist ideology', East European Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 4, 1998, 449-72.
53. At a tumultuous party meeting in Žilina in October 1999, Slota was ousted as party leader, and replaced by Anna Maléková after months of mounting criticism of his abusive behaviour and excessive alcohol consumption.
54. See M. Strhan and D. P. Daniel (eds), Slovakia and the Slovaks. A Concise Encyclopedia (Bratislava: Encyclopedical Institute of the Academic of Sciences/Goldpress Publishers 1994); S. J. Kirschbaum, A History of Slovakia. The Struggle for Survival (New York: St Martin's Press 1996); and S. Fried, 'Ultra-nationalism in Slovak life: an assessment', East European Jewish Affairs, vol. 27, no. 2, 1997, 93-107.
55. See M. Strhan and D. P. Daniel (eds), Slovakia and the Slovaks. A Concise Encyclopedia (Bratislava: Encyclopedical Institute of the Academic of Sciences/Goldpress Publishers 1994); S. J. Kirschbaum, A History of Slovakia. The Struggle for Survival (New York: St Martin's Press 1996); and S. Fried, 'Ultra-nationalism in Slovak life: an assessment', East European Jewish Affairs, vol. 27, no. 2, 1997, 93-107.
56. See M. Strhan and D. P. Daniel (eds), Slovakia and the Slovaks. A Concise Encyclopedia (Bratislava: Encyclopedical Institute of the Academic of Sciences/Goldpress Publishers 1994); S. J. Kirschbaum, A History of Slovakia. The Struggle for Survival (New York: St Martin's Press 1996); and S. Fried, 'Ultra-nationalism in Slovak life: an assessment', East European Jewish Affairs, vol. 27, no. 2, 1997, 93-107.
57. I use the term 'national-conservative' to denote a set of beliefs that combines conservative ethical and social values with an emphasis on the 'national interest'.
58. J. Obrman, 'Civic Forum surges to impressive victory in elections', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 25, 1990, 14; see also P. Martin, 'Czechoslovakia: the election campaign', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 24, 1990, 15-19.
59. J. Obrman, 'Civic Forum surges to impressive victory in elections', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 25, 1990, 14; see also P. Martin, 'Czechoslovakia: the election campaign', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 24, 1990, 15-19.
60. On the 'velvet split', see P. Kopecký, 'From "velvet revolution" to "velvet split": consociational institutions and the disintegration of Czechoslovakia', in M. Kraus and A. K. Stranger (eds), Irreconcilable Differences? Explaining the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield 1999).
61. See, for example, Szayna, 'The extreme-right political movements', 130-5.
62. See S. Fischer, 'Slovakia', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 68-71; Fried, 101-3;
63. and M. Zitny, 'Party of "pure Slovak blood"', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 37-8.
64. Michael Shafir has pointed out to me that most leaders of the main ERPs in East-Central Europe - i.e. István Csurka (Hungary), Miroslav Sládek (Czech Republic), Stanisław Tyminski (Poland) - had ties with the Communist regime.
65. See, for example, Braun, 140, and J. T. Ishiyama, 'Strange bedfellows: explaining political cooperation between communist successor parties and nationalists in Eastern Europe', Nations and Nationalism, vol. 4, no. 1, 1998, 61-85.
66. Shafir, 'Marginalisation or mainstream?'.
67. M. Shafir, 'The Greater Romania Party', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 2, no. 4, 1991, 25-30; on Tudor, see also H. F. Carey, 'Post-Communist right radicalism in Romania', in Merkl and Weinberg (eds), Revival of Right-wing Extremism, 162-3.
68. M. Shafir, 'The Greater Romania Party', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 2, no. 4, 1991, 25-30; on Tudor, see also H. F. Carey, 'Post-Communist right radicalism in Romania', in Merkl and Weinberg (eds), Revival of Right-wing Extremism, 162-3.
69. Shafir, 'Marginalisation or mainstream?'.
70. V. Eskenazy, 'Romania', in CERA, 214; on the PRM's antisemitism in general, see Volovici, 4-5.
71. V. Eskenazy, 'Romania', in CERA, 214; on the PRM's antisemitism in general, see Volovici, 4-5.
72. Eskenazy, 215; on Funar, see also Carey, 159-60.
73. Eskenazy, 215; on Funar, see also Carey, 159-60.
74. V. Gradev, 'Bulgaria: rediscovering the Balkans and its discontents', in B. Baumgartl and A. Favell (eds), The New Xenophobia in Europe (London: Kluwer Law International 1995), 56-67.
75. On the two organizations, see J. Bugajski/Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Ethnic Politics in Eastern Europe (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe 1995), 244-8.
76. Gradev, 65.
77. Lenkova, in Camus (ed.), 98.
78. See L. Vinton, 'Poland', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 62-7, and Kulakowska.
79. See A. Sabbat-Swidlicka, 'The electoral platforms of the presidential candidates', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 49, 1990, 13-14.
80. See D. McQuaid, 'Poland: the political landscape before the elections', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 2, no. 42, 1991, 16; Kulakowska, 201; and L. Vinton, '"Outsider" parties and the political process in Poland', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 3, 1994, 13-22.
81. See D. McQuaid, 'Poland: the political landscape before the elections', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 2, no. 42, 1991, 16; Kulakowska, 201; and L. Vinton, '"Outsider" parties and the political process in Poland', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 3, 1994, 13-22.
82. Kulakowska, 201; see also K. Jasiewicz, 'Poland', European Journal of Political Research, vol. 26, nos 3-4, 1994, 398.
83. See, for example, Ishiyama; T. Shavshukova, '"Reds" and "Browns": synthesis or antagonism?', in Camus (ed.), 287-90.
84. See S. K. Carter, 'The CIS and after: the impact of Russian nationalism', in Cheles et al. (eds), 174-97; T. D. Clark, 'The Zhirinovsky electoral victory: antecedence and aftermath', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 4, 1995, 767-78; and V. Pribilovski, 'Russia', in CERA, 220-40.
85. See S. K. Carter, 'The CIS and after: the impact of Russian nationalism', in Cheles et al. (eds), 174-97; T. D. Clark, 'The Zhirinovsky electoral victory: antecedence and aftermath', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 4, 1995, 767-78; and V. Pribilovski, 'Russia', in CERA, 220-40.
86. See S. K. Carter, 'The CIS and after: the impact of Russian nationalism', in Cheles et al. (eds), 174-97; T. D. Clark, 'The Zhirinovsky electoral victory: antecedence and aftermath', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 4, 1995, 767-78; and V. Pribilovski, 'Russia', in CERA, 220-40.
87. On the increasing importance of nationalism in the KPRF, and the role of Zyuganov, see J. P. Scanlan, 'The Russian idea from Dostoevskii to Ziuganov', Problems of Post-Communism, vol. 43, no. 4, 1996, 35-42; A. J. Gregor, 'Fascism and the new Russian nationalism', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 31, no. 1, 1998, 1-15;
88. On the increasing importance of nationalism in the KPRF, and the role of Zyuganov, see J. P. Scanlan, 'The Russian idea from Dostoevskii to Ziuganov', Problems of Post-Communism, vol. 43, no. 4, 1996, 35-42; A. J. Gregor, 'Fascism and the new Russian nationalism', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 31, no. 1, 1998, 1-15;
89. G. Fikke, 'Patriotic left-centrism: the zigzags of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation', Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 51, no. 2, 1999, 275-98; and
90. S. M. Hashin, 'KPRF ideology and its implications for democratization in Russia', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 32, no. 1, 1999, 77-89.
91. S. Markotich, 'Serbia', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 95.
92. See, for example, M. Forbes and W. Fink, Schirinowski): Politiker-Populist-Nationalist? (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung 1994), and Clark. The LDPR attracted particularly strong support among 'ethnic' Russians outside the Russian state, including 32 per cent of the Russian vote in Latvia and even 48 per cent in Estonia; see S. Girnius, 'The Baltic states', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 5-8. The LDPR has branches not only in former Soviet republics, but even has associated parties in former Soviet allies, such as Bulgaria; see JPR, 125.
93. See, for example, M. Forbes and W. Fink, Schirinowski): Politiker-Populist-Nationalist? (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung 1994), and Clark. The LDPR attracted particularly strong support among 'ethnic' Russians outside the Russian state, including 32 per cent of the Russian vote in Latvia and even 48 per cent in Estonia; see S. Girnius, 'The Baltic states', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 5-8. The LDPR has branches not only in former Soviet republics, but even has associated parties in former Soviet allies, such as Bulgaria; see JPR, 125.
94. With 11 per cent of the vote for party list, the LDPR is still the third largest party in the Duma; see S. White, 'The 1995 elections to the Russian State Duma', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, vol. 13, no. 1, 1997, 107-14.
95. See, for example, G. Hirscher and K. Lange, Schirinowski und die LDPR - Gefahren für die deutsche und internationale Politik (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung 1994); and A. Umland, 'Vladimir Zhirinovskii in Russian Politics: Three Approaches to the Emergence of the Liberal-Democratic Party of Russia, 1990-1993', dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, 1997.
96. Markotich, 'Serbia';
97. N. J. Miller, 'Serbia chooses aggression', Orbis, vol. 38, no. 1, 1994, 59-66.
98. See Irvine, 'Nationalism and the extreme right'.
99. Hartmann, 315.
100. See Irvine, 'Nationalism and the extreme right', 149.
101. Hartmann, 322; see also Markotich, 'Serbia'.
102. S. Markotich, 'Slovenia', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 103.
103. See ibid., and Z. Ploštajner and M. Vahtar, 'Slovenia: afterpains of secession', in Baumgartl and Favell (eds), 306-19.
104. Markotich, 'Slovenia'. The most notable split-offs are the Slovenska nacionalna desnica (SND, Slovenian National Right) and the Nacionalna stranka dela (NSD, National Party of Labour). See J. Vogrinc, 'Slovenia', in Camus (ed.), 309.
105. Markotich, 'Slovenia'. The most notable split-offs are the Slovenska nacionalna desnica (SND, Slovenian National Right) and the Nacionalna stranka dela (NSD, National Party of Labour). See J. Vogrinc, 'Slovenia', in Camus (ed.), 309.
106. Szayna, 'The extreme-right political movements', 125.
107. Ibid.
108. See E. K. Jenne, 'The Czech Republic', in Camus (ed.), 112-13; S. Penc and J. Urban, 'Czech Republic: extremist acts galvanize Roma population', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 39-40; and P. Kopecký and C. Mudde, 'The 1998 parliamentary and senate elections in the Czech Republic', Electoral Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, 1999, 411-50.
109. See E. K. Jenne, 'The Czech Republic', in Camus (ed.), 112-13; S. Penc and J. Urban, 'Czech Republic: extremist acts galvanize Roma population', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 39-40; and P. Kopecký and C. Mudde, 'The 1998 parliamentary and senate elections in the Czech Republic', Electoral Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, 1999, 411-50.
110. See E. K. Jenne, 'The Czech Republic', in Camus (ed.), 112-13; S. Penc and J. Urban, 'Czech Republic: extremist acts galvanize Roma population', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 39-40; and P. Kopecký and C. Mudde, 'The 1998 parliamentary and senate elections in the Czech Republic', Electoral Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, 1999, 411-50.
111. J. Pehe, 'Czechoslovakia: the political spectrum', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 10, 1990, 12-15.
112. J. Pehe, 'Civic Forum and Public against Violence after the elections', Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 25, 1990, 10-12.
113. See Szayna, 'Ultra-nationalism in Central Europe', 540-1.
114. See, for example, P. Hockenos, Free to Hate. The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (New York: Routledge 1993), 212-31, and Szayna, 'The extreme-right political movements', 125-6.
115. See, for example, P. Hockenos, Free to Hate. The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (New York: Routledge 1993), 212-31, and Szayna, 'The extreme-right political movements', 125-6.
116. J. Pehe, 'The Czech Republic', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 50-4.
117. See V. Dvoraková, 'The politics of antipolitics? The radical right in the Czech Republic', paper presented at the conference 'Liberalism, social democracy and fascism in Central Europe: past and present', Sandbjerg, 15-18 November 1996.
118. Y. Plasseraud, 'The Baltic states', in Camus (ed.), 43.
119. Y. Plasseraud, 'The Baltic states', in CERA, 35.
120. See M. Sandle, 'The resurgence of nationalism in Estonia', in J. Amodia (ed.), The Resurgence of Nationalist Movements in Europe (Bradford: Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford 1993), 18-36; and A. Mäe, 'Estonian National Independence Party (ENIP)', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 1, 1995, 211-12.
121. See M. Sandle, 'The resurgence of nationalism in Estonia', in J. Amodia (ed.), The Resurgence of Nationalist Movements in Europe (Bradford: Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford 1993), 18-36; and A. Mäe, 'Estonian National Independence Party (ENIP)', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 1, 1995, 211-12.
122. Mäe, 211.
123. 'Central Union of Estonian Patriots (ERKL)', Nationalities Papers, vol. 23, no. 1, 1995, 183-5.
124. K. Engelbrekt, 'Bulgaria', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 76; Lenkova, in Camus (ed.), 100.
125. Mitev, 77; see also Lenkova, in Camus (ed.), 100.
126. See L. Szôcs, 'A tale of the unexpected: the extreme right vis-à-vis democracy in post-Communist Hungary', Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 21, no. 6, 1998, 1096-115.
127. See J. Pataki, 'Istvan Czurka's tract: summary and reactions', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 1, no. 41, 1992, 15-22.
128. E. Oltay, 'Hungary: political fragmentation and economic recession', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 1, 1994, 76-80; Szayna, 'The extreme-right political movements', 140-1.
129. E. Oltay, 'Hungary: political fragmentation and economic recession', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 1, 1994, 76-80; Szayna, 'The extreme-right political movements', 140-1.
130. E. Oltay, 'Hungary', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 55-61; A. Szántay and M. Velladics, 'Hungary: strangers thou shouldst kindheartedly support and respect . . .', in Baumgartl and Favell (eds), 180-91.
131. E. Oltay, 'Hungary', RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 3, no. 16, 1994, 55-61; A. Szántay and M. Velladics, 'Hungary: strangers thou shouldst kindheartedly support and respect . . .', in Baumgartl and Favell (eds), 180-91.
132. See M. Haraszti, 'Young bloods', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 48-53; Szôcs; and R. Vago, 'Hungary', in Camus (ed.), 191-2.
133. See M. Haraszti, 'Young bloods', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 48-53; Szôcs; and R. Vago, 'Hungary', in Camus (ed.), 191-2.
134. See Fischer-Galati.
135. See V. Tismaneanu, 'Understanding national Stalinism: reflections on Ceauşescu's socialism', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 32, no. 2, 1999, 155-73.
136. S. Berglund and J. A. Dellenbrant, 'Prospects for the new democracies in Eastern Europe', in S. Berglund and J. A. Dellenbrant (eds), The New Democracies in Eastern Europe: Party Systems and Political Cleavages (Aldershot: Elgar 1991), 211-23; J.-E. Lane and S. O. Ersson, European Politics. An Introduction (London: Sage 1996).
137. S. Berglund and J. A. Dellenbrant, 'Prospects for the new democracies in Eastern Europe', in S. Berglund and J. A. Dellenbrant (eds), The New Democracies in Eastern Europe: Party Systems and Political Cleavages (Aldershot: Elgar 1991), 211-23; J.-E. Lane and S. O. Ersson, European Politics. An Introduction (London: Sage 1996).
138. S. P. Huntington, 'The clash of civilizations?', Foreign Affairs, vol. 72, no. 3, 1993, 22-49.
139. See also von Beyme, 'Rechtsextremismus in Osteuropa', 424-5.
140. See Engelbrekt.
141. On the FN's East European activities, see M. Hunter, 'Nationalism unleashed', Transitions, vol. 5, no. 7, 1998, 18-28.
142. Engelbrekt.
143. Hartmann, 315.
144. J. Harris, 'See EU in hell', New Statesmen and Society, vol. 125, no. 4312, 1996, 3-5; E. Boisserie, 'Slovakia', in Camus (ed.), 299.
145. J. Harris, 'See EU in hell', New Statesmen and Society, vol. 125, no. 4312, 1996, 3-5; E. Boisserie, 'Slovakia', in Camus (ed.), 299.