An overview of formation and roles of acetaldehyde in winemaking with emphasis on microbiological implications

International Journal of Food Science and Technology

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 49-61

  Liu, Shao Quan ^a,b   Pilone, Gordon J ^a  

^a MASSEY UNIVERSITY   (New Zealand)

^b NEW ZEALAND DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Bacteria; Fermentation; Phenolics; Yeasts

Indexed keywords

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 0034354263     PISSN: 09505423     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2621.2000.00341.x     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Adams, M.R. & Moss, M.O. (1995). Food Microbiology. P. 290. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
2. Alexandre, H. & Charpentier, C. (1998). Biochemical aspects of stuck and sluggish fermentation in grape must. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 20, 20-27.
3. Amerine, M.A. (1958). Acetaldehyde formation in submerged cultures of Saccharomyces beticus. Applied Microbiology, 6, 160-168.
4. Amerine, M.A. & Ough, C.S. (1964). Studies with controlled fermentation. VIII. Factors affecting aldehyde accumulation. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 15, 23-33.
5. Amerine, M.A. & Ough, C.S. (1980). Methods for Analysis of Musis and Wines. Pp. 128-134. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
6. Bakker, J. (1986). HPLC of anthocyanins in port wines; determination of aging rates. Vitis, 25, 203-214.
7. Bakker, J. & Timberlake, C.F. (1986). The mechanism of color changes in aging port wine. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 37, 288-292.
8. Bakker, J. & Timberlake, C.F. (1997). Isolation, identification, and characterization of new color-stable anthocyanins occurring in some red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45, 35-43.
9. Bakker, J., Picinelli, A & Bridle, P. (1993). Model wine solutions: colour and composition changes during ageing. Vitis, 32, 111-118.
10. Baranowski, E.S. & Nagel, C.W. (1983). Kinetics of malvidin-3-glucoside condensation in wine model systems. Journal of Food Science, 48 (419-421), 429.
11. Bassette, R., Bawdon, R.E. & Claydon, T.J. (1967). Production of volatile materials in milk by some species of bacteria. Journal of Dairy Science, 50, 167-171.
12. Beelman, R.B. & Kunkee, R.E. (1985). Inducing simultaneous malolactic-alcoholic fermentation in red table wines. In: Proceedings of the Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Seminar on Malolactic Fermentation (edited by T.H. Lee). Pp. 97-112. Melbourne, Australia: The Australian Wine Research Institute.
13. Beelman, R.B. & Kunkee, R.E. (1987). Inducing simultaneous malolactic/alcoholic fermentations. Practical Winery & Vineyard, July/August, 44-56.
14. Beelman, R.B., Keen, R.M., Banner, M.J. & King, S.W. (1982). Interactions between wine yeast and malolactic bacteria under wine conditions. Development in Industrial Microbiology, 23, 107-121.
15. Berg, H.W. & Akiyoshi, M.A. (1975). On the nature of reactions responsible for color behavior in red wine: a hypothesis. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 26, 134-143.
16. Berg, H.W., Filipello, F., Hinreiner, E. & Webb, A.D. (1955). Evaluation of thresholds and minimum difference concentrations for various constituents of wines. I. Water solutions of pure substances. Food Technology, 9, 23-26.
17. Bills, D.D. & Day, E.A. (1966). Dehydrogenase activity of lactic streptococci. Journal of Dairy Science, 49, 1473-1477.
18. Bisson, L.F. & Kunkee, R.E. (1991). Microbial interactions during wine production. In: Mixed Cultures in Biotechnology (edited by J.G. Zeikus & E.A. Johnson). Pp. 37-68. New York: McGraw-Hill.
19. Bottazzi, V. & Dellaglio, F. (1967). Acetaldehyde and diacetyl production by Streptococcus thermophilus and other lactic streptococci. Journal of Dairy Research, 34, 109-113.
20. Bottazzi, V. & Vescovo, M. (1969). Carbonyl compounds produced by yoghurt bacteria. Netherlands Milk and Dairy Journal, 23, 71-78.
21. Boulton, R.B., Singleton, V.L., Bisson, L.F. & Kunkee, R.E. (1996). Principles and Practices of Winemaking. Pp. 136-137, 448-473. New York: Chapman & Hall.
22. Cabranes, C., Moreno, J. & Mangas, J.J. (1998). Cider production with immobilized Leuconostoc oenos. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 104, 127-130.
23. Cannon. M.C. & Pilone, G.J. (1993). Interactions between commercial wine yeast and malolactic bacteria. In: Proceedings of the New Zealand Grape and Wine Symposium: sustainability/Cabernet Sauvignon (edited by D.T. Jordan). Pp. 85-95. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Viticulture and Oenology.
24. Castino, M. (1985). L'addizione al mosto di acido pantotenico non contribuisce alla riduzione dell'acetaldeide formata nel corso della fermentazione Rivista Di Viticoltura E Di Enologia Di Conegliano, 38, 608-615.
25. Collins, E.B. & Speckman, R.A. (1974). Influence of acetaldehyde on growth and acetoin production by Leuconostoc citrovorum. Journal of Dairy Science, 57, 1428-1431.
26. Cortes, M.B., Moreno, J., Zea, L., Moyano, L. & Medina, M. (1998). Changes in aroma compounds of sherry wines during their biological aging carried out by Saccharomyces cerevisiae races bayanus and capensis. Journal of Agricultural anil Food Chemistry, 46, 2389-2394.
27. Davis, C.R., Wibowo, D., Lee, T.H. & Fleet, G.H. (1985). Practical implications of malolactic fermentation. A review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 36, 290-301.
28. Delfini, C. & Morsiani, M.G. (1992). Resistance to sulfur dioxide of malolactic strains of Leuconostoc oenos and Lactobacillus sp. isolated from wines. Sciences Des Aliments, 12, 493-511.
29. Delfini, C. & Morsiani, M.G. (1993). Study on the resistance to sulfur dioxide of malolactic strains of Leuconostoc oenos and Lactobacillus sp. FEMS Microbiological Reviews, 12 (1-3), 163.
30. Delcour, J.A., Dondeyne, P., Trousdale, E.K. & Singleton, V.L. (1982). The reactions between polyphenols and aldehydes and the influence of acetaldehyde on haze formation in beer. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 88, 234-243.
31. Di Stefano, R. & Ciolfi, G. (1982). Produzione di acetaldeide da parte di stipiti di lieviti di specie diverse. Rivista Di Viticoltura E Di Enologia Di Conegliano, 35. 474-480.
32. 2-bindende stoffe und saureabbau in deutschen weinen. Eine Untersuchung an 544 weinen. Wein.-Wissenschaft, 39, 184-200.
33. Drysdale, G.S. & Fleet, G.H. (1985). Acetic acid bacteria in some Australian wines. Food Technology in Australia, 37, 17-20.
34. Drysdale, G.S. & Fleet, G.H. (1988). Acetic acid bacteria in winemaking: a review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 39, 143-154.
35. Drysdale, G.S. & Fleet, G.H. (1989). The effect of acetic-acid bacteria upon the growth and metabolism of yeasts during the fermentation of grape juice. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 67, 471-481.
36. Eggenberger, W. (1988). Malolactic fermentation of wines in cool climates. In: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium for Cool Climate Viticulture and Oenology (edited by R. Smart, R. Thornton, S. Rodriguez & J. Young). Pp. 232-237. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Viticulture and Oenology.
37. El-Gendy, S.M., Abdel-Galil, H., Shahin, Y. & Hegazi, F.Z. (1983). Acetoin and diacetyl production by homo-and heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria. Journal of Food Protection, 46 (420-425), 428.
38. El-Sayed, N.H., Effat, B.A. & Magdoub, M.N.I. (1993). Lactic cultures role in Ras cheese ripening. Egyptian Journal of 'Dairy Science, 21, 163-170.
39. Engels, W.J.M., Dekker, R., de Jong, C., Neeter, R. & Visser, S. (1997). A comparative study of volatile compounds in the water-soluble fraction of various types of ripened cheese. International Dairy Journal, 7, 255-263.
40. Farris, G.A., Fatichenti, F., Deiana, P. & Madau, G. (1983). Functional selection of low sulfur dioxide-acceptor producers among 30 Saccharomyces cerevisiae-strains. Journal of Fermentation Technology, 61, 201-204.
41. Fleet, G.H. & Heard, G.M. (1993). Yeasts growth during fermentation. In: Wine Microbiology and Biotechnology (edited by G.H. Fleet). Pp. 27-54. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
42. Fornachon, J.C.M. (1953). The accumulation of acetaldehyde by suspensions of yeasts. Applied Microbiology, 6, 222-233.
43. Fornachon, J.C.M. (1963). Inhibition of certain lactic acid bacteria by free and bound sulphur dioxide. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 14, 857-862.
44. Fornachon, J.C.M. (1968). Influence of different yeasts on the growth of lactic acid bacteria in wine. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 19, 374-378.
45. Freeman, G.G. & Donald, G.M. (1957). Fermentation processes leading to glycerol. II. Studies on the effects of sulfite on viability, growth, and fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Applied Microbiology, 5, 211-215.
46. Fugelsang, K.C. (1997). Wine Microbiology. Pp. 57-61, 141. New York: Chapman & Hall.
47. Griffith, R. & Hammond, E.G. (1989). Generation of Swiss cheese flavor components by the reaction of amino acids with carbonyl compounds. Journal of Dairy Science, 72, 604-613.
48. Grozeva, L., Tchorbanov, B. & Gyosheva, B. (1994). Effect of crude extracts of Lactobacillus in increasing the amino N and acetaldehyde levels in yogurt. Journal of Dairy Research, 61, 581-585.
49. Hallsworth, J.E. (1998). Ethanol-induced water stress in yeast. Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 85, 125-137.
50. Hamdan, I.Y., Kunsman, J.E Jr & Deane, D.D. (1971). Acetaldehyde production by combined yoghurt cultures. Journal of Dairy Science, 54, 1080-1082.
51. Harrison, G.A. (1970). The flavour of beer - a review. Journal of the Institue of Brewing, 76, 486-495.
52. Harvey, R.J. (1960). Production of acetone and acetaldehyde by lactic streptococci. Journal of Dairy Research, 27, 41-45.
53. Henick-Kling, T. (1993). Malolactic fermentation. In: Wine Microbiology and Biotechnology (edited by G.H. Fleet). Pp. 286-326. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
54. Henick-Kling, T. (1995). Control of malolactic fermentation in wine: energetics, flavour modification and methods of starter culture preparation. Journal of Applied Bacteriology Symposium Supplement, 79, 29S-37S.
55. Henschke, P.A. & Jiranek, V. (1993). Yeasts metabolism of nitrogen compounds. In: Wine Microbiology and Biotechnology (edited by G.H. Fleet). Pp. 77-164. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
56. 2 using various selected yeasts. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 49, 249-258.
57. Herraiz, T., Reglero, G., Herraiz, M., Martin-Alvarez, P.J. & Cabezudo, M.D. (1990). The influence of the yeast and type of culture on the volatile composition of wines fermented without sulfur dioxide. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 41, 313-318.
58. Hood, A. (1983). Inhibition of growth of wine lactic-acid bacteria by acetaldehyde-bound sulphur dioxide. The Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker, April, Pp., 34, 37-38, 40, 42-43.
59. Huang, Y.-C. Edwards, C.G., Peterson, J.C. & Haag, K.M. (1996). Relationship between sluggish fermentations and the antagonism of yeast by lactic acid bacteria. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 47, 1-10.
60. Ibeas, J.I., Lozano, I., Perdigones, F. & Jimenez, J. (1997). Dynamics of flor yeast populations during the biological aging of sherry wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 48, 75-79.
61. Ingledew, M.W. & Kunkee. R.E. (1985). Factors influencing sluggish fermentations of grape juice. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 36, 65-76.
62. Jones, R.P. (1989). Biological principles for the effects of ethanol. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 11, 130-153.
63. Jones, R.P. (1990). Roles for replicative deactivation in yeast-ethanol fermentations. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 10, 205-222.
64. Joyeux, A., Lafon-Lafourcade, S. & Ribéreau-Gayon, P. (1984a). Evolution of acetic acid bacteria during fermentation and storage of wine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 48, 153-156.
65. Joyeux, A., Lafon-Lafourcade, S. & Ribéreau-Gayon, P. (1984b). Métabolisme des bactéries acétiques dans le moût de raisin. Conséquences a l'égard de la fermentation alcoolique et malolactique. Sciences et Aliments, 4, 247-255.
66. Jurd, L. (1969). Review of polyphenol condensation reactions and their possible occurrence in the aging of wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 20, 191-195.
67. Keenan, T.W. (1968). Production of acetic acid and other volatile compounds by Leuconostoc citrovorum and Leuconostoc dextranicum. Applied Microbiology, 16, 1881-1885.
68. Keenan, T.W. & Lindsay, R.C. (1966). Removal of green flavor from ripened butter cultures. Journal of Dairy Science, 49, 1563-1565.
69. Keenan, T.W. & Lindsay, R.C. (1967). Dehydrogenase activity of Lactobacillus species. Journal of Dairy Science, 50, 1585-1588.
70. Keenan, T.W., Lindsay, R.C. & Day, E.A. (1966a). Acetaldehyde utilization by Leuconostoc species. Applied Microbiology, 14, 802-806.
71. Keenan, T.W., Lindsay, R.C., Morgan, M.E. & Day, E.A. (1966b). Acetaldehyde production by single-strain lactic streptococci. Journal of Dairy Science, 49, 10-14.
72. Keenan, T.W., Parmelee, C.E. & Branen, A.L. (1968). Metabolism of volatile compounds of Pediococcus cerevisiae and their occurrence in Cheddar cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 51, 1737-1742.
73. King, S.W. & Beelman, R.B. (1986). Metabolic interactions between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Leuconostoc oenos in a model grape juice/wine system. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 37, 53-60.
74. Kneifel, W., Ulberth, F., Erhard, F. & Jaros, D. (1992). Aroma profiles and sensory properties of yoghurt and yoghurt-related products. Milchwissenschaft, 47, 362-365.
75. Kunkee, R.E. (1967). Malolactic fermentation. Advances in Applied Microbiology, 9, 235-279.
76. Kunkee, R.E. (1974). Malolactic fermentation in winemaking. In: Chemistry of Winemaking (edited by A.D. Webb). Advances in Chemistry Series 137. Pp. 151-170. Washington: American Chemical Society.
77. Kunkee, R.E. (1991). Relationship between nitrogen content of must and sluggish fermentation. In: Proceedings of International Symposium on Nitrogen in Grapes and Wine (edited by J.M. Rantz). Pp. 148-155. Seattle, Washington: American Society for Enology and Viticulture.
78. Lafon-Lafourcade, S. (1975). Factors of the malo-lactic fermentation of wines. In: Lactic Acid Bacteria in Beverages and Food (edited by J.G. Carr, C.V. Cutting & G.C. Whiting). Pp. 43-53. London: Academic Press.
79. Lafon-Lafourcade, S. & Ribéreau-Gayon, P. (1984). Developments in the microbiology of wine production. In: Progress in Industrial Microbiology, vol. 19 (edited by M.E. Bushell). Pp. 1-45. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
80. Lázaro, F., Luque de Castro, M.D. & Valcárcel, M. (1987). Individual and simultaneous determination of ethanol and acetaldehyde in wines by flow injection analysis and immobilized enzymes. Analytical Chemistry, 59, 1859-1863.
81. Lees, G.J. & Jago, G.R. (1976a). Acetaldehyde: an intermediate in the formation of ethanol from glucose by lactic acid bacteria. Journal of Dairy Research, 43, 63-73.
82. Lees, G.J. & Jago, G.R. (1976b). Formation of acetaldehyde from threonine by lactic acid bacteria. Journal of Dairy Research, 43, 75-83.
83. Lees, G.J. & Jago, G.R. (1977). Formation of acetaldehyde from 2-deoxy-D-ribose-5-phosphate in lactic acid bacteria. Journal of Dairy Research, 44, 139-144.
84. Leguerinel, I., Mafart, P., Cleret, J.J. & Bourgeois, C. (1989). Yeast strain and kinetic aspects of the formation of flavour components in cider. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 95, 405-409.
85. Lindsay, R.C., Day, E.A. & Sandine, W.E. (1965). Green flavor defect in lactic starter cultures. Journal of Dairy Science, 48, 863-869.
86. Liu, S.-Q., Asmundson, R.V., Holland, R. & Crow, V.L. (1997). Acetaldehyde metabolism by Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris under stress conditions. International Dairy Journal, 7, 175-183.
87. Longo, E., Velazquez, J.B., Sieiro, C., Cansado, J., Calo, P. & Villa, T.G. (1992). Production of higher alcohols, ethyl acetate, acetate and other compounds by 14 Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine strains isolated from the same region (Sainés, N.W. Spain). World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 8, 539-541.
88. Maiorella, B., Blanch, H.W. & Wilke, C.R. (1983). By-product inhibition effects on ethanolic fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 25, 103-121.
89. Margalith, P.Z. (1981). Flavor Microbiology. Pp. 233-234. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
90. Marranzini, R.M., Schmidt, R.H., Shireman, R.B., Marshall, M.R. & Cornell, J.A. (1989). Effect of threonine and glycine concentrations on threonine aldolase activity of yogurt microorganisms during growth in a modified milk prepared by ultrafiltration. Journal of Dairy Science, 72, 1142-1148.
91. Marshall, V.M. & Cole, W.M. (1983). Threonine aldolase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities in Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Lactobacillus acidophilus and their contribution to flavour production in fermented milks. Journal of Dairy Research, 50, 375-379.
92. Martinez, P., Pérez Rodríguez, L. & Benítez, T. (1997). Evolution of flor yeast population during the biological aging of fino sherry wine. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 48, 160-168.
93. Mayer, M.K. (1978). Progrès récents dans la connaissance des phénomènes microbiologiques en vinification. Bulletin l'Office International de la Vigne et Du Vin, 51, 269-280.
94. McCloskey, L.P. & Mahaney, P. (1981). An enzymatic assay for acetaldehyde in grape juice and wine. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 32, 159-162.
95. Millán, C. & Ortega, J.M. (1988). Production of ethanol, acetaldehyde, and acetic acid in wine by various yeast races: role of alcoholic and aldehyde dehydrogenase. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 39, 107-112.
96. Miyake, T. & Shibamoto, T. (1993). Quantitative analysis of acetaldehyde in foods and beverages. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 41, 1968-1970.
97. Mizuno, W.G. & Jezeski, J.J. (1959). Studies on starter metabolism. IV. Effect of various substrates on the formation of acetoin by a mixed strain starter culture. Journal of Dairy Science, 42, 251-263.
98. Nykanen, L. (1986). Kormation and occurrence of flavor compounds in wine and distilled alcoholic beverages. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 37, 84-96.
99. Ough, C.S. (1961). Acetaldehyde formation in submerged cultures of non-film-forming species of Saccharomyces. Applied Microbiology, 9, 316-319.
100. Ough, C.S. & Amerine, M.A. (1958). Studies on aldehyde production under pressure, oxygen, and agitation. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 9, 111-122.
101. Ough, C.S. & Amerine, M.A. (1960). Flor sherry production by submerged culture. Food Technology, 14, 155-159.
102. Ough, C.S. & Amerine, M.A. (1988). Methods for Analysis of Musts and Wines. Pp. 141-148. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
103. Peynaud, E. (1984). Knowing and Making Wine. Pp. 266-274. New York: John Wiley & Sons [English translation].
104. Pilkington, B. & Rose, A.M. (1988). Reactions of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zygosaccharomyces bailii to sulphite. Journal of General Microbiology, 134, 2823-2830.
105. Pilone, G.J. (1995). A New Zealand experience in direct-vat inoculation for malolactic fermentation. Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Journal, 10, 169-173.
106. Prasad, D.N. & Srinivas, K. (1987). Performance of Leuconostoc species in the manufacture of yoghurt. Cultured Dairy Products Journal, 22 (10), 12.
107. Rankine, B.C. & Pocock, K.F. (1969). Influence of yeast strains on binding of sulphur dioxide in wines, and on its formation during fermentation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 20, 104-109.
108. Rapp, A. (1988). Wine aroma substances from gas chromatographic analysis. In: Modern Methods of Plant Analysis. New Series, vol. 6. Wine analysis (edited by H.F. Linskens & J.F. Jackson). Pp. 29-66. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
109. Rash, K. (1990). Compositional elements affecting flavor of cultured dairy foods. Journal of Dairy Science, 73, 3651-3656.
110. Rasmussen, J.E., Schultz, E., Snyder, R.E., Jones, R.S. & Smith, C.R. (1995). Acetic acid as a causative agent in producing stuck fermentations. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 46, 278-280.
111. Ribéreau-Gayon, J., Peynaud, E. & Lafon, M. (1956a). Investigations on the origin of secondary products of alcoholic fermentation. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 7, 53-61.
112. Ribéreau-Gayon, J., Peynaud, E. & Lafon, M. (1956b). Investigations on the origin of secondary products of alcoholic fermentation. Part II. Fermentations deviated by addition of fatty acids. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 7, 112-118.
113. Ribéreau-Gayon, P. (1974). The chemistry of wine color. In: Chemistry of Winemaking. Advances in Chemistry Series 137 (edited by A.D. Webb). Pp. 50-87. Washington DC: American Chemical Society.
114. Ribéreau-Gayon, P., Pontallier, P. & Glories, Y. (1983). Some interpretations of colour changes in young red wines during their conservation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 34, 505-516.
115. Romano, P., Paraggio, M. & Turbanti, L. (1998). Stability in by-product formation as a strain selection tool of Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine yeasts. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 84, 336-341.
116. Romano, P. & Suzzi, G. (1993), Sulfur dioxide and wine microorganisms. In: Wine Microbiology and Biotechnology (edited by G.H. Fleet). Pp. 373-393. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
117. Romano, P., Suzzi, G., Comi, G., Zironi, R. & Maifreni, M. (1997). Glycerol and other fermentation products of apiculate wine yeasts. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 82, 615-618.
118. Romano, P., Suzzi, G., Turbanti, L. & Polsinelly, M. (1994). Acetaldehyde production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine yeasts. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 118, 213-218.
119. Rysstad, G., Knutsen, W.J. & Abrahamsen, R.K. (1990). Effect of threonine and glycine on acetaldehyde formation in goats' milk yogurt. Journal of Dairy Research, 57, 401-411.
120. Saucier, C., Bourgeois, G., Vitry, C., Roux, D. & Glories, Y. (1997a). Characterization of (+)-catechin-acetaldehyde polymers: a model for colloidal state of wine polyphenols. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45, 1045-1049.
121. Saucier, C., Little, D. & Glories, Y. (1997b). First evidence of acetaldehyde-flavanol condensation products in red wine. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 48, 370-373.
122. Schmitt, P. & Diviés, C. (1990). Effect of acetaldehyde on growth, substrates, and products by Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. cremoris. Biotechnology Progress, 6, 421-424.
123. Sims, C.A. & Morris, J.R. (1986). Effects of acetaldehyde and tannins on the colour and chemical age of red Muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia) wine. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 37, 163-165.
124. Singleton, V.L. (1988). Wine phenols. In: Modern Methods of Plant Analysis. New Series, vol. 6. Wine Analysis (edited by H.F. Linskens & J.F. Jackson). Pp. 173-218. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
125. Singleton, V.L., Berg, H.W. & Guymon, J.F. (1964). Anthocyanin color level in port-type wines as affected by the use of wine spirits containing aldehydes. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 15, 75-81.
126. Singleton, V.L. & Esau, P. (1969). Phenolic Substances in Grapes and Wine, and Their Significance. Pp. 7-111, 134-206. New York: Academic Press.
127. Singleton, V.L. & Guymon, J.F. (1963). A test of fractional addition of wine spirits to red and white port wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 14, 129-136.
128. Somers, T.C. (1972). The nature of colour in wines. Food Technology in Australia, 24, 10-12.
129. Somers, T.C. (1975). In search of quality for red wines. Food Technology in Australia, 27, 49-56.
130. Somers, T.C. (1998). The Wine Spectrum: an approach towards objective definition of wine quality. Pp. 80-87. Adelaide, Australia: Winetitles.
131. Somers, T.C. & Vérette, E. (1988). Phenolic composition of natural wine types. In: Modern Methods of Plant Analysis. New Series, vol. 6. Wine analysis (edited by H.F. Linskens & J.F. Jackson). Pp. 219-257. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
132. 2 during vinification and conservation. The Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker, April, 68, 70, 72, 74.
133. Somers, T.C. & Wescombe, L.G. (1987). Evolution of red wines. II. An assessment of the role of acetaldehyde, Vitis. 26, 27-36.
134. Sponholz, W.-R. (1993). Wine spoilage by microorganisms. In: Wine Microbiology and Biotechnology (edited by G.H. Fleet). Pp. 395-420. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
135. Stanley, G.A., Douglas, N.G., Every, E.J., Tzanatos, T. & Pamment, N.B. (1993). Inhibition and stimulation of yeast growth by acetaldehyde. Biotechnology Letters, 15, 1199-1204.
136. Stanley, G.A., Hobley, T.J. & Pamment, N.B. (1997). Effect of acetaldehyde on Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis subjected to environmental shocks. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 53, 71-78.
137. Stanley, G.A. & Pamment, N.B. (1993). Transport and intracellular accumulation of acetaldehyde in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 42, 24-29.
138. Stratford, M., Morgan, P. & Rose, A.H. (1987). Sulphur dioxide resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces ludwigii. Journal of General Microbiology, 133, 2173-2179.
139. Timberlake, C.F. (1981). Parameters of red wine quality. Food Technology in Australia, 33, 139-144.
140. Timberlake, C.F. & Bridle, P. (1976). Interactions between anthocyanins, phenolic compounds, and acetaldehyde and their significance in red wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 27, 97-105.
141. Timberlake, C.F. & Bridle, P. (1977). Anthocyanins: colour augmentation with catechin and acetaldehyde. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 28, 539-544.
142. Urbach, G. (1995). Contribution of lactic acid bacteria to flavour formation in dairy products. International Dairy Journal, 5, 877-903.
143. Urbach, G. (1997). The flavour of milk and dairy products: II. Cheese: contribution of volatile compounds. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 50, 79-89.
144. Walker-Caprioglio, H M. & Parks, L.W. (1987). Autoconditioning factor relieves ethanol-induced growth inhibition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 53, 33-35.
145. Walsh, B. & Cogan, T.M. (1973). Diacetyl, acetoin, and acetaldehyde production by mixed-species lactic starter cultures. Applied Microbiology, 26, 820-825.
146. Weerkamp, A.H., Klijn, N., Neeter, R. & Smit, G. (1996). Properties of mesophilic lactic acid bacteria from raw milk and naturally fermented raw milk products. Netherlands Milk and Dairy Journal, 50, 319-332.
147. Weeks, C. (1969). Production of sulfur dioxide-binding compounds and of sulfur dioxide by two Saccharomyces yeasts. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 20, 32-39.
148. Wibowo, D., Eschenbruch, R., Davis, C.R., Fleet, G.H. & Lee, T.H. (1985). Occurrence and growth of lactic acid bacteria in wine. A review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 36, 302-313.
149. Wildenradt, H.L. & Singleton, V.L. (1974). The production of aldehydes as a result of oxidation of polyphenolic compounds and its relation to wine aging. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 25, 119-126.
150. Wilkins, D.W., Schmidt, R.H. & Kennedy, L.B. (1986a). Threonine aldolase activity in yoghurt bacteria as determined by headspace gas chromatography. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 34, 150-152.
151. Wilkins, D.W., Schmidt, R.H., Shireman, R.B., Smith, K.L. & Jezeski, J.J. (1986b). Evaluating acetaldehyde synthesis from L-[14C(U)] threonine by Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. Journal of Dairy Science, 69, 1219-1224.
152. Williams, A.A. (1974). Flavour research and the cider industry. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 80, 455-470.
153. Williams, A.A. (1975). The development of a vocabulary and profile assessment method for evaluating the flavour contribution of cider and perry aroma constituents. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 26, 567-582.
154. Williams, A.A. & Tucknott, O.G. (1971). Volatile constituents of fermented cider. I. Draught dry cider blend. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 22, 264-269.
155. Zoecklein, B.W., Fugelsang, K.C., Gump, B.H. & Nury, F.S. (1995). Wine Analysis and Production. Pp. 115-151, 178-19, 221-222, 282-286, 328-329. New York: Chapman & Hall.
156. Zourari, A., Accolas, J. & Desmazeaud, M.J. (1992). Metabolism and biochemical characteristics of yoghurt bacteria. A review. Lait, 72, 1-34.