The industrial Far West: Region and nation in the late nineteenth century

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 69, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 159-192

  Igler, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF UTAH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL HISTORY; INDUSTRIAL HISTORY; INDUSTRIALIZATION; NINETEENTH CENTURY;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0034092272     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3641437     Document Type: Article

References (242)

1. Joseph Warren Matthews Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Matthews's eleven-volume diary covers the years 1869 through 1901. "Plus found" refers to the meals and temporary lodging that Miller & Lux supplied its migrant workers in addition to wages.
2. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
3. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
4. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
5. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
6. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
7. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
8. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
9. For an excellent recent treatment of western wage labor and migrant workers, see Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994). On the labor forces of specific industries, see Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925 (Urbana, Ill., 1989); William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850-1986 (Seattle, 1988); Daniel A. Cornford, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia, 1987); Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, Ill., 1992); and Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, 1996).
10. I use the term "Far West" to refer to essentially the same region that Earl Pomeroy designated the "Pacific Slope," a term I will use interchangeably with "Far West." For my purposes, the region's coherence has less to do with political boundaries and more to do with patterns of trade, investment, social intercourse, and natural resource flows. Thus, the Far West's dimensions constantly changed over time. As this essay will illustrate, California (and San Francisco in particular) remained the region's nerve center prior to 1900; or, as Pomeroy wrote, its "catalyst, banker, and base of operations." Earl Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (New York, 1966), vi.
11. Bernard DeVoto, "The West: A Plundered Province," Harper's, 169 (1934), 355-364.
12. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987); Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985). Evaluations of this approach and recent western historiography include: Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, 63 (1994), 125-148; William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, 25 (1994), 185-206; William Robbins, "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," Reviews of American History, 19 (1991), 313-332.
13. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987); Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985). Evaluations of this approach and recent western historiography include: Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, 63 (1994), 125-148; William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, 25 (1994), 185-206; William Robbins, "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," Reviews of American History, 19 (1991), 313-332.
14. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987); Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985). Evaluations of this approach and recent western historiography include: Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, 63 (1994), 125-148; William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, 25 (1994), 185-206; William Robbins, "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," Reviews of American History, 19 (1991), 313-332.
15. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987); Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985). Evaluations of this approach and recent western historiography include: Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, 63 (1994), 125-148; William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, 25 (1994), 185-206; William Robbins, "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," Reviews of American History, 19 (1991), 313-332.
16. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987); Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985). Evaluations of this approach and recent western historiography include: Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, 63 (1994), 125-148; William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, 25 (1994), 185-206; William Robbins, "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," Reviews of American History, 19 (1991), 313-332.
17. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987); Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985). Evaluations of this approach and recent western historiography include: Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, 63 (1994), 125-148; William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, 25 (1994), 185-206; William Robbins, "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," Reviews of American History, 19 (1991), 313-332.
18. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
19. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
20. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
21. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
22. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
23. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
24. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
25. For a very brief sampling of borderlands and comparative literature, see David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, 1982); Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1974); Edward W. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960 (Tucson, 1962); Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, 1987); James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, "Comparative Frontier History," in Lamar and Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, Conn., 1981); and David G. Gutiérrez, "Significance to Whom? Mexican Americans and the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1993), 519-539. For a summary of this literature that poses a "postwestern" perspective, see Kerwin Klein, "Reclaiming the 'F' Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), 179-215.
26. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
27. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
28. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
29. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
30. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
31. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
32. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
33. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
34. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
35. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
36. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
37. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
38. The most influential study of industrial enterprise remains Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). Chandler's narrow focus on capital-intensive, manufacturing sectors as the basis of industrial enterprise distorts both modernizing industry's trajectory and impact. Recent critiques of Chandler include Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916 (Cambridge, Eng., 1988); Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff, eds., Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise (Chicago, 1994); and Michael Storper and Richard Walker, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth (Oxford, Eng., 1989). For broader studies on the origins and impacts of industrialization, see Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1995); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America (New York, 1981); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990); Hal S. Barron, Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York, 1982); and Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967). On industrialization in the South, see Douglas Flamming, Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Managers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992); and James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington, Ky., 1984). A good synthesis of Chandler and more recent studies is Richard R. John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review, 71 (1997), 151-200.
39. For an approach to industry's environmental context, see Theodore Steinberg, Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England (New York, 1991), 10-17.
40. On the continuing power of Chandler's work in the field, see John, "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents," 173-175.
41. Chandler, The Visible Hand, 285-286. Emphasis added.
42. Licht, Industrializing America, 117.
43. Chandler, The Visible Hand, 347. For the limited geography in other works, see Zunz, Making America Corporate, 10; Thomas C. Cochran, Two Hundred Years of American Business (New York, 1977), 93-97; Albert Niemi, Jr., State and Regional Patterns in American Manufacturing (Westport, Conn., 1974), 3-28.
44. Chandler, The Visible Hand, 347. For the limited geography in other works, see Zunz, Making America Corporate, 10; Thomas C. Cochran, Two Hundred Years of American Business (New York, 1977), 93-97; Albert Niemi, Jr., State and Regional Patterns in American Manufacturing (Westport, Conn., 1974), 3-28.
45. Chandler, The Visible Hand, 347. For the limited geography in other works, see Zunz, Making America Corporate, 10; Thomas C. Cochran, Two Hundred Years of American Business (New York, 1977), 93-97; Albert Niemi, Jr., State and Regional Patterns in American Manufacturing (Westport, Conn., 1974), 3-28.
46. Chandler, The Visible Hand, 347. For the limited geography in other works, see Zunz, Making America Corporate, 10; Thomas C. Cochran, Two Hundred Years of American Business (New York, 1977), 93-97; Albert Niemi, Jr., State and Regional Patterns in American Manufacturing (Westport, Conn., 1974), 3-28.
47. Philip Scranton, Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997), 7, 9.
48. Between 1990 and 1999 Business History published three articles on twentieth-century firms or industries located in California, and one on a Montana-based department store. None of these studies attempted to treat regional characteristics in a broad, conceptual manner.
49. Studies emphasizing the decentralized and spontaneous growth of industrial capitalism support such an approach. See François Weil, "Capitalism and Industrialization in New England, 1815-1845," Journal of American History, 84 (1998), 1334-1354; Flamming, Creating the Modern South; Storper and Walker, The Capitalist Imperative; and Christopher Clark, The Roots of Rural Capitalism: Western Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990).
50. Studies emphasizing the decentralized and spontaneous growth of industrial capitalism support such an approach. See François Weil, "Capitalism and Industrialization in New England, 1815-1845," Journal of American History, 84 (1998), 1334-1354; Flamming, Creating the Modern South; Storper and Walker, The Capitalist Imperative; and Christopher Clark, The Roots of Rural Capitalism: Western Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990).
51. Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 83, 85, 88-89, 119. According to Pomeroy, "[The Pacific Slope] was not so much behind the East in the manner of the new agricultural territories and states of the Mississippi Valley as it was committed to a different kind of development. Its economy was basically colonial and rested on the extraction of nature's bounty, which seemed likely to flow eastward along with those who extracted it"(p. 83). See also DeVoto, "The West," 355-364. For recent statements of the plundered province thesis, see Richard D. Lamm and Michael McCarthy, The Angry West: A Vulnerable Land and Its Future (Boston, 1982); Robert Bunting, The Pacific Raincoast: Environment and Culture in an American Eden, 1778-1900 (Lawrence, Kans., 1997), 128-134.
52. Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 83, 85, 88-89, 119. According to Pomeroy, "[The Pacific Slope] was not so much behind the East in the manner of the new agricultural territories and states of the Mississippi Valley as it was committed to a different kind of development. Its economy was basically colonial and rested on the extraction of nature's bounty, which seemed likely to flow eastward along with those who extracted it"(p. 83). See also DeVoto, "The West," 355-364. For recent statements of the plundered province thesis, see Richard D. Lamm and Michael McCarthy, The Angry West: A Vulnerable Land and Its Future (Boston, 1982); Robert Bunting, The Pacific Raincoast: Environment and Culture in an American Eden, 1778-1900 (Lawrence, Kans., 1997), 128-134.
53. Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 83, 85, 88-89, 119. According to Pomeroy, "[The Pacific Slope] was not so much behind the East in the manner of the new agricultural territories and states of the Mississippi Valley as it was committed to a different kind of development. Its economy was basically colonial and rested on the extraction of nature's bounty, which seemed likely to flow eastward along with those who extracted it"(p. 83). See also DeVoto, "The West," 355-364. For recent statements of the plundered province thesis, see Richard D. Lamm and Michael McCarthy, The Angry West: A Vulnerable Land and Its Future (Boston, 1982); Robert Bunting, The Pacific Raincoast: Environment and Culture in an American Eden, 1778-1900 (Lawrence, Kans., 1997), 128-134.
54. Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 83, 85, 88-89, 119. According to Pomeroy, "[The Pacific Slope] was not so much behind the East in the manner of the new agricultural territories and states of the Mississippi Valley as it was committed to a different kind of development. Its economy was basically colonial and rested on the extraction of nature's bounty, which seemed likely to flow eastward along with those who extracted it"(p. 83). See also DeVoto, "The West," 355-364. For recent statements of the plundered province thesis, see Richard D. Lamm and Michael McCarthy, The Angry West: A Vulnerable Land and Its Future (Boston, 1982); Robert Bunting, The Pacific Raincoast: Environment and Culture in an American Eden, 1778-1900 (Lawrence, Kans., 1997), 128-134.
55. On the West's industrial growth during World War II, see Gerald Nash, The American West Transformed: The Impact of the Second World War (Bloomington, Ind., 1985).
56. William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, Kans., 1994), xi;
57. and Robbins, "In Pursuit of Historical Explanation: Capitalism as a Conceptual Tool for Knowing the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, 30 (1999), 277-293.
58. Richard Maxwell Brown's research on western violence and culture also gives serious attention to nineteenth-century western capitalist relations. See Richard Maxwell Brown, No Duty to Retreat: Violence and Values in American History and Society (Norman, Okla., 1994);
59. Brown, "Western Violence: Structure, Values, Myth," Western Historical Quarterly, 24 (1994), 5-20.
60. More common are studies that chart industrialization and capitalist development in the twentieth century. See Mark S. Foster, Henry J. Kaiser: Builder in the Modern American West (Austin, Texas, 1989); Felice A. Bonadio, A. P. Giannini: Banker of America (Berkeley, 1995); Gerald D. Nash, A. P. Giannini and the Bank of America (Norman, Okla., 1992); Nash, The American West Transformed; Mansel G. Blackford, The Politics of Business in California, 1890-1920 (Columbus, Ohio, 1977).
61. More common are studies that chart industrialization and capitalist development in the twentieth century. See Mark S. Foster, Henry J. Kaiser: Builder in the Modern American West (Austin, Texas, 1989); Felice A. Bonadio, A. P. Giannini: Banker of America (Berkeley, 1995); Gerald D. Nash, A. P. Giannini and the Bank of America (Norman, Okla., 1992); Nash, The American West Transformed; Mansel G. Blackford, The Politics of Business in California, 1890-1920 (Columbus, Ohio, 1977).
62. More common are studies that chart industrialization and capitalist development in the twentieth century. See Mark S. Foster, Henry J. Kaiser: Builder in the Modern American West (Austin, Texas, 1989); Felice A. Bonadio, A. P. Giannini: Banker of America (Berkeley, 1995); Gerald D. Nash, A. P. Giannini and the Bank of America (Norman, Okla., 1992); Nash, The American West Transformed; Mansel G. Blackford, The Politics of Business in California, 1890-1920 (Columbus, Ohio, 1977).
63. More common are studies that chart industrialization and capitalist development in the twentieth century. See Mark S. Foster, Henry J. Kaiser: Builder in the Modern American West (Austin, Texas, 1989); Felice A. Bonadio, A. P. Giannini: Banker of America (Berkeley, 1995); Gerald D. Nash, A. P. Giannini and the Bank of America (Norman, Okla., 1992); Nash, The American West Transformed; Mansel G. Blackford, The Politics of Business in California, 1890-1920 (Columbus, Ohio, 1977).
64. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
65. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
66. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in
67. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
68. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
69. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
70. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
71. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
72. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
73. McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848-1880 (New York, 1963); Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York, 1988); Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York, 1945); Worster, Rivers of Empire; Nancy Lynn Quam-Wickham, "Petroleocrats and Proletarians: Work, Class, and Politics in the California Oil Industry, 1917-1925" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1994); Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (New York, 1986); William Deverell, Railroad Crossings: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley, 1994); Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier, 1864-1906 (Seattle, 1981); Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, 1999); Jessica Teisch, "The Drowning of Big Meadows: Nature, White Coal, and Corporate Power in California, 1880-1920" (M.S. thesis, university of California, Berkeley, 1997); Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West (Lanham, Md., 1994).
74. William Cronon's magisterial Nature's Metropolis suggested the importance of this dynamic to western historians. See Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991). For the highly critical response to Cronon's work by some geographers, see Antipode, 26 (1994). A sampling of the city-systems approach includes: Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 1840-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Michael P. Conzen, "The Maturing Urban System in the United States," in David T. Herbert and Ronald John Johnston, eds., Geography and the Urban Environment (New York, 1981); David Ralph Meyer, "A Dynamic Model of the Integration of Frontier Urban Places into the United States System of Cities," Economic Geography, 56 (1980), 120-140; Carl Abbott, "Regional City and Network City: Portland and Seattle in the Twentieth Century," Western Historical Quarterly, 23 (1992), 293-322; Eugene Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 337-362.
75. William Cronon's magisterial Nature's Metropolis suggested the importance of this dynamic to western historians. See Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991). For the highly critical response to Cronon's work by some geographers, see Antipode, 26 (1994). A sampling of the city-systems approach includes: Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 1840-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Michael P. Conzen, "The Maturing Urban System in the United States," in David T. Herbert and Ronald John Johnston, eds., Geography and the Urban Environment (New York, 1981); David Ralph Meyer, "A Dynamic Model of the Integration of Frontier Urban Places into the United States System of Cities," Economic Geography, 56 (1980), 120-140; Carl Abbott, "Regional City and Network City: Portland and Seattle in the Twentieth Century," Western Historical Quarterly, 23 (1992), 293-322; Eugene Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 337-362.
76. William Cronon's magisterial Nature's Metropolis suggested the importance of this dynamic to western historians. See Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991). For the highly critical response to Cronon's work by some geographers, see Antipode, 26 (1994). A sampling of the city-systems approach includes: Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 1840-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Michael P. Conzen, "The Maturing Urban System in the United States," in David T. Herbert and Ronald John Johnston, eds., Geography and the Urban Environment (New York, 1981); David Ralph Meyer, "A Dynamic Model of the Integration of Frontier Urban Places into the United States System of Cities," Economic Geography, 56 (1980), 120-140; Carl Abbott, "Regional City and Network City: Portland and Seattle in the Twentieth Century," Western Historical Quarterly, 23 (1992), 293-322; Eugene Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 337-362.
77. William Cronon's magisterial Nature's Metropolis suggested the importance of this dynamic to western historians. See Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991). For the highly critical response to Cronon's work by some geographers, see Antipode, 26 (1994). A sampling of the city-systems approach includes: Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 1840-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Michael P. Conzen, "The Maturing Urban System in the United States," in David T. Herbert and Ronald John Johnston, eds., Geography and the Urban Environment (New York, 1981); David Ralph Meyer, "A Dynamic Model of the Integration of Frontier Urban Places into the United States System of Cities," Economic Geography, 56 (1980), 120-140; Carl Abbott, "Regional City and Network City: Portland and Seattle in the Twentieth Century," Western Historical Quarterly, 23 (1992), 293-322; Eugene Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 337-362.
78. William Cronon's magisterial Nature's Metropolis suggested the importance of this dynamic to western historians. See Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991). For the highly critical response to Cronon's work by some geographers, see Antipode, 26 (1994). A sampling of the city-systems approach includes: Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 1840-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Michael P. Conzen, "The Maturing Urban System in the United States," in David T. Herbert and Ronald John Johnston, eds., Geography and the Urban Environment (New York, 1981); David Ralph Meyer, "A Dynamic Model of the Integration of Frontier Urban Places into the United States System of Cities," Economic Geography, 56 (1980), 120-140; Carl Abbott, "Regional City and Network City: Portland and Seattle in the Twentieth Century," Western Historical Quarterly, 23 (1992), 293-322; Eugene Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 337-362.
79. William Cronon's magisterial Nature's Metropolis suggested the importance of this dynamic to western historians. See Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991). For the highly critical response to Cronon's work by some geographers, see Antipode, 26 (1994). A sampling of the city-systems approach includes: Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 1840-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Michael P. Conzen, "The Maturing Urban System in the United States," in David T. Herbert and Ronald John Johnston, eds., Geography and the Urban Environment (New York, 1981); David Ralph Meyer, "A Dynamic Model of the Integration of Frontier Urban Places into the United States System of Cities," Economic Geography, 56 (1980), 120-140; Carl Abbott, "Regional City and Network City: Portland and Seattle in the Twentieth Century," Western Historical Quarterly, 23 (1992), 293-322; Eugene Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 337-362.
80. William Cronon's magisterial Nature's Metropolis suggested the importance of this dynamic to western historians. See Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991). For the highly critical response to Cronon's work by some geographers, see Antipode, 26 (1994). A sampling of the city-systems approach includes: Allan Pred, Urban Growth and City-Systems in the United States, 1840-1860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Michael P. Conzen, "The Maturing Urban System in the United States," in David T. Herbert and Ronald John Johnston, eds., Geography and the Urban Environment (New York, 1981); David Ralph Meyer, "A Dynamic Model of the Integration of Frontier Urban Places into the United States System of Cities," Economic Geography, 56 (1980), 120-140; Carl Abbott, "Regional City and Network City: Portland and Seattle in the Twentieth Century," Western Historical Quarterly, 23 (1992), 293-322; Eugene Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 337-362.
81. For a concise statement on the relationship between nature and human labor in the West, see Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York, 1995).
82. No precise figures for gold production exist. These figures are compiled from various sources in Richard Walker, "California's Debt to Nature: Nature Resources and the Golden Road to Capitalist Growth, 1848-1940," Annals of the American Association of Geographers (forthcoming). See also the production figures for 1848 through 1874 compiled in Rodman Paul, California Gold: The Beginning of Mining in the Far West (Cambridge, Mass., 1947), 345-348. The most recent collection of essays on the Gold Rush is the sesquicentennial issue of California History, James J. Rawls and Richard J. Orsi, eds., A Golden State: Mining and Economic Development in Gold Rush California (Berkeley, 1998/99).
83. No precise figures for gold production exist. These figures are compiled from various sources in Richard Walker, "California's Debt to Nature: Nature Resources and the Golden Road to Capitalist Growth, 1848-1940," Annals of the American Association of Geographers (forthcoming). See also the production figures for 1848 through 1874 compiled in Rodman Paul, California Gold: The Beginning of Mining in the Far West (Cambridge, Mass., 1947), 345-348. The most recent collection of essays on the Gold Rush is the sesquicentennial issue of California History, James J. Rawls and Richard J. Orsi, eds., A Golden State: Mining and Economic Development in Gold Rush California (Berkeley, 1998/99).
84. No precise figures for gold production exist. These figures are compiled from various sources in Richard Walker, "California's Debt to Nature: Nature Resources and the Golden Road to Capitalist Growth, 1848-1940," Annals of the American Association of Geographers (forthcoming). See also the production figures for 1848 through 1874 compiled in Rodman Paul, California Gold: The Beginning of Mining in the Far West (Cambridge, Mass., 1947), 345-348. The most recent collection of essays on the Gold Rush is the sesquicentennial issue of California History, James J. Rawls and Richard J. Orsi, eds., A Golden State: Mining and Economic Development in Gold Rush California (Berkeley, 1998/99).
85. Some scholars, most notably Paul Wallace Gates, contend that California's land monopolists derived their holdings in large measure from Mexican rancheros. Such analysis holds true for a small group of California landlords, but it fails to recognize that the majority of landed enterprises secured their property from the public domain. See Paul Wallace Gates, Land and Law in California: Essays on Land Policies (Ames, Iowa, 1991). For critiques of Gates, see Ellen Liebman, California Farmland: A History of Large Agricultural Landholdings (Totowa, N.J., 1983); and David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Nature, Private Property, and Region in the Far West, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1996).
86. Some scholars, most notably Paul Wallace Gates, contend that California's land monopolists derived their holdings in large measure from Mexican rancheros. Such analysis holds true for a small group of California landlords, but it fails to recognize that the majority of landed enterprises secured their property from the public domain. See Paul Wallace Gates, Land and Law in California: Essays on Land Policies (Ames, Iowa, 1991). For critiques of Gates, see Ellen Liebman, California Farmland: A History of Large Agricultural Landholdings (Totowa, N.J., 1983); and David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Nature, Private Property, and Region in the Far West, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1996).
87. Some scholars, most notably Paul Wallace Gates, contend that California's land monopolists derived their holdings in large measure from Mexican rancheros. Such analysis holds true for a small group of California landlords, but it fails to recognize that the majority of landed enterprises secured their property from the public domain. See Paul Wallace Gates, Land and Law in California: Essays on Land Policies (Ames, Iowa, 1991). For critiques of Gates, see Ellen Liebman, California Farmland: A History of Large Agricultural Landholdings (Totowa, N.J., 1983); and David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Nature, Private Property, and Region in the Far West, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1996).
88. The continuity with earlier land speculation can be seen in the methods of acquisition and use of public offices. But the Far West also suggests historical discontinuities, particularly in terms of land use and the goals of land monopolists. For examples of earlier speculative activities, see Alan Taylor, William Cooper's Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York, 1995); Steven Aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore, 1996); and Paul Wallace Gates, Landlords and Tenants on the Prairie Frontier: Studies in American Land Policy (Ithaca, N.Y., 1973).
89. The continuity with earlier land speculation can be seen in the methods of acquisition and use of public offices. But the Far West also suggests historical discontinuities, particularly in terms of land use and the goals of land monopolists. For examples of earlier speculative activities, see Alan Taylor, William Cooper's Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York, 1995); Steven Aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore, 1996); and Paul Wallace Gates, Landlords and Tenants on the Prairie Frontier: Studies in American Land Policy (Ithaca, N.Y., 1973).
90. The continuity with earlier land speculation can be seen in the methods of acquisition and use of public offices. But the Far West also suggests historical discontinuities, particularly in terms of land use and the goals of land monopolists. For examples of earlier speculative activities, see Alan Taylor, William Cooper's Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York, 1995); Steven Aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore, 1996); and Paul Wallace Gates, Landlords and Tenants on the Prairie Frontier: Studies in American Land Policy (Ithaca, N.Y., 1973).
91. John Osborn, Railroads and Clearcuts (Spokane, Wash., 1995); Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle, 1974); Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise; Joseph E. King, A Mine to Make a Mine: Financing the Colorado Mining Industry, 1859-1902 (College Station, Texas, 1977); Richard Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1977); John Opie, The Law of the Land: Two Hundred Years of American Farmland Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1987), 70-92.
92. John Osborn, Railroads and Clearcuts (Spokane, Wash., 1995); Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle, 1974); Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise; Joseph E. King, A Mine to Make a Mine: Financing the Colorado Mining Industry, 1859-1902 (College Station, Texas, 1977); Richard Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1977); John Opie, The Law of the Land: Two Hundred Years of American Farmland Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1987), 70-92.
93. John Osborn, Railroads and Clearcuts (Spokane, Wash., 1995); Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle, 1974); Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise; Joseph E. King, A Mine to Make a Mine: Financing the Colorado Mining Industry, 1859-1902 (College Station, Texas, 1977); Richard Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1977); John Opie, The Law of the Land: Two Hundred Years of American Farmland Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1987), 70-92.
94. John Osborn, Railroads and Clearcuts (Spokane, Wash., 1995); Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle, 1974); Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise; Joseph E. King, A Mine to Make a Mine: Financing the Colorado Mining Industry, 1859-1902 (College Station, Texas, 1977); Richard Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1977); John Opie, The Law of the Land: Two Hundred Years of American Farmland Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1987), 70-92.
95. John Osborn, Railroads and Clearcuts (Spokane, Wash., 1995); Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle, 1974); Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise; Joseph E. King, A Mine to Make a Mine: Financing the Colorado Mining Industry, 1859-1902 (College Station, Texas, 1977); Richard Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1977); John Opie, The Law of the Land: Two Hundred Years of American Farmland Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1987), 70-92.
96. John Osborn, Railroads and Clearcuts (Spokane, Wash., 1995); Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle, 1974); Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise; Joseph E. King, A Mine to Make a Mine: Financing the Colorado Mining Industry, 1859-1902 (College Station, Texas, 1977); Richard Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1977); John Opie, The Law of the Land: Two Hundred Years of American Farmland Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1987), 70-92.
97. On Miller & Lux, see M. Catherine Miller, Flooding the Courtrooms: Law and Water in the Far West (Lincoln, Nebr., 1993); David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Corporate Ranching in Late Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 201-215; McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 28-39; Edward F. Treadwell, The Cattle King: A Dramatized Biography (New York, 1931); and William D. Lawrence, "Henry Miller and the San Joaquin Valley" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1933).
98. On Miller & Lux, see M. Catherine Miller, Flooding the Courtrooms: Law and Water in the Far West (Lincoln, Nebr., 1993); David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Corporate Ranching in Late Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 201-215; McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 28-39; Edward F. Treadwell, The Cattle King: A Dramatized Biography (New York, 1931); and William D. Lawrence, "Henry Miller and the San Joaquin Valley" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1933).
99. On Miller & Lux, see M. Catherine Miller, Flooding the Courtrooms: Law and Water in the Far West (Lincoln, Nebr., 1993); David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Corporate Ranching in Late Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 201-215; McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 28-39; Edward F. Treadwell, The Cattle King: A Dramatized Biography (New York, 1931); and William D. Lawrence, "Henry Miller and the San Joaquin Valley" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1933).
100. On Miller & Lux, see M. Catherine Miller, Flooding the Courtrooms: Law and Water in the Far West (Lincoln, Nebr., 1993); David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Corporate Ranching in Late Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 201-215; McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 28-39; Edward F. Treadwell, The Cattle King: A Dramatized Biography (New York, 1931); and William D. Lawrence, "Henry Miller and the San Joaquin Valley" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1933).
101. On Miller & Lux, see M. Catherine Miller, Flooding the Courtrooms: Law and Water in the Far West (Lincoln, Nebr., 1993); David Igler, "Industrial Cowboys: Corporate Ranching in Late Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 201-215; McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 28-39; Edward F. Treadwell, The Cattle King: A Dramatized Biography (New York, 1931); and William D. Lawrence, "Henry Miller and the San Joaquin Valley" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1933).
102. Henry Miller, "Autobiographical Statement," Hubert Howe Bancroft Collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
103. See Thomas R. Navin, "The 500 Largest American Industrials in 1917," Business History Review, 44 (1970), 360-386.
104. Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture for the Years 1870 and 1871, Journals of the California Senate and Assembly, 19 sess. (Sacramento, Calif., 1872), 3:15-16. A "mixed" pattern of landholding emerged early on in California, with massive operations in some parts of the state and smaller, market-oriented farms in others. See David Vaught, "Factories in the Field Revisited," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 149-184; Steven Stoll, The Fruits of Natural Advantage: Making the Industrial Countryside in California (Berkeley, 1998), 162-173.
105. Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture for the Years 1870 and 1871, Journals of the California Senate and Assembly, 19 sess. (Sacramento, Calif., 1872), 3:15-16. A "mixed" pattern of landholding emerged early on in California, with massive operations in some parts of the state and smaller, market-oriented farms in others. See David Vaught, "Factories in the Field Revisited," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 149-184; Steven Stoll, The Fruits of Natural Advantage: Making the Industrial Countryside in California (Berkeley, 1998), 162-173.
106. Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture for the Years 1870 and 1871, Journals of the California Senate and Assembly, 19 sess. (Sacramento, Calif., 1872), 3:15-16. A "mixed" pattern of landholding emerged early on in California, with massive operations in some parts of the state and smaller, market-oriented farms in others. See David Vaught, "Factories in the Field Revisited," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 149-184; Steven Stoll, The Fruits of Natural Advantage: Making the Industrial Countryside in California (Berkeley, 1998), 162-173.
107. Donald J. Pisani, "Land Monopoly in Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 65 (1991), 15-35; Gates, "Corporate Farming in California," in Gates, Land and Law in California, 329-352. On the motives of speculators, see Gerald Nash, "Henry George Reexamined: William S. Chapman's Views on Land Speculation in Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 33 (1959), 133-137.
108. Donald J. Pisani, "Land Monopoly in Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 65 (1991), 15-35; Gates, "Corporate Farming in California," in Gates, Land and Law in California, 329-352. On the motives of speculators, see Gerald Nash, "Henry George Reexamined: William S. Chapman's Views on Land Speculation in Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 33 (1959), 133-137.
109. Donald J. Pisani, "Land Monopoly in Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 65 (1991), 15-35; Gates, "Corporate Farming in California," in Gates, Land and Law in California, 329-352. On the motives of speculators, see Gerald Nash, "Henry George Reexamined: William S. Chapman's Views on Land Speculation in Nineteenth-Century California," Agricultural History, 33 (1959), 133-137.
110. On the lumber industry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle, 1995); William G. Robbins, Lumberjacks and Legislators: Political Economy of the United States Lumber Industry, 1890-1941 (College Station, Texas, 1982); Cox, Mills and Markets.
111. On the lumber industry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle, 1995); William G. Robbins, Lumberjacks and Legislators: Political Economy of the United States Lumber Industry, 1890-1941 (College Station, Texas, 1982); Cox, Mills and Markets.
112. On the lumber industry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle, 1995); William G. Robbins, Lumberjacks and Legislators: Political Economy of the United States Lumber Industry, 1890-1941 (College Station, Texas, 1982); Cox, Mills and Markets.
113. Richard H. Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Norman, Okla., 1971), 50-51; Malone, The Battle for Butte, 34-45; Paul Sabin, "Petroleum Polity: Law and Politics in the California Oil Economy, 1910-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2000).
114. Richard H. Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Norman, Okla., 1971), 50-51; Malone, The Battle for Butte, 34-45; Paul Sabin, "Petroleum Polity: Law and Politics in the California Oil Economy, 1910-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2000).
115. Richard H. Peterson, The Bonanza Kings: The Social Origins and Business Behavior of Western Mining Entrepreneurs, 1870-1900 (Norman, Okla., 1971), 50-51; Malone, The Battle for Butte, 34-45; Paul Sabin, "Petroleum Polity: Law and Politics in the California Oil Economy, 1910-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2000).
116. Thomas K. McCraw, "Business and Government: The Origins of the Adversary Relationship," California Management Review, 26 (1984), 50.
117. Peterson, The Bonanza Kings, 103.
118. Frederick Cleveland and Fred Wilbur Powell, Railroad Promotion and Capitalization in the United States (New York, 1909), 251.
119. The British lobby was headed by Foreign Minister Sir Edward Thornton. Clark C. Spence, British Investment and the American Mining Frontier, 1860-1901 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1958), 191-205. Sargent was only one of many western senators assisting land barons and industrialists in this manner. Other prominent senatorial plunderers include California's Leland Stanford, Nevada's William Stewart and John P. Jones, and Montana's William Clark. Supreme Court Justice Stephen J. Field of California also played an extremely powerful role in shaping the legal landscape on behalf of corporate interests. See Harry Scheiber, "State Law and 'Industrial Policy' in American Development, 1790-1987," California Law Review, 75 (1987), 425-444; Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 107-108. I thank an anonymous reader for suggestions on this point.
120. The British lobby was headed by Foreign Minister Sir Edward Thornton. Clark C. Spence, British Investment and the American Mining Frontier, 1860-1901 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1958), 191-205. Sargent was only one of many western senators assisting land barons and industrialists in this manner. Other prominent senatorial plunderers include California's Leland Stanford, Nevada's William Stewart and John P. Jones, and Montana's William Clark. Supreme Court Justice Stephen J. Field of California also played an extremely powerful role in shaping the legal landscape on behalf of corporate interests. See Harry Scheiber, "State Law and 'Industrial Policy' in American Development, 1790-1987," California Law Review, 75 (1987), 425-444; Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 107-108. I thank an anonymous reader for suggestions on this point.
121. The British lobby was headed by Foreign Minister Sir Edward Thornton. Clark C. Spence, British Investment and the American Mining Frontier, 1860-1901 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1958), 191-205. Sargent was only one of many western senators assisting land barons and industrialists in this manner. Other prominent senatorial plunderers include California's Leland Stanford, Nevada's William Stewart and John P. Jones, and Montana's William Clark. Supreme Court Justice Stephen J. Field of California also played an extremely powerful role in shaping the legal landscape on behalf of corporate interests. See Harry Scheiber, "State Law and 'Industrial Policy' in American Development, 1790-1987," California Law Review, 75 (1987), 425-444; Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 107-108. I thank an anonymous reader for suggestions on this point.
122. James B. Haggin, et al., Desert Lands of Kern County, California: Affidavits of Various Residents of Said County (San Francisco, 1877); Margaret Aseman Cooper Zonlight, Land, Water and Settlement in Kern County California, 1850-1890 (New York, 1979); Philip J. Fitzgerald, The Kern County Land Company: A Story of Science and Finance (San Francisco, 1939).
123. James B. Haggin, et al., Desert Lands of Kern County, California: Affidavits of Various Residents of Said County (San Francisco, 1877); Margaret Aseman Cooper Zonlight, Land, Water and Settlement in Kern County California, 1850-1890 (New York, 1979); Philip J. Fitzgerald, The Kern County Land Company: A Story of Science and Finance (San Francisco, 1939).
124. James B. Haggin, et al., Desert Lands of Kern County, California: Affidavits of Various Residents of Said County (San Francisco, 1877); Margaret Aseman Cooper Zonlight, Land, Water and Settlement in Kern County California, 1850-1890 (New York, 1979); Philip J. Fitzgerald, The Kern County Land Company: A Story of Science and Finance (San Francisco, 1939).
125. Miller and his mythic boat were apparently omnipresent in the Far West. The same story was reported in California, Oregon, and Nevada during the late nineteenth century.
126. Igler, "Industrial Cowboys," chapter 3.
127. Bunting, The Pacific Raincoast, 159; Cochran, Two Hundred Years of American Business, 94.
128. Bunting, The Pacific Raincoast, 159; Cochran, Two Hundred Years of American Business, 94.
129. DeVoto clearly saw the West as an industrial region but one constructed by and benefiting Easterners. Such development "has not made the West wealthy. It has, to be brief, made the East wealthy." See DeVoto, "The West," 358. Pomeroy echoed this sentiment; see Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 83, 85, 88-89, 119. Gerald Nash remains the most prominent scholar of pre-World War II western colonialism. See Nash, The American West Transformed, vii.
130. DeVoto clearly saw the West as an industrial region but one constructed by and benefiting Easterners. Such development "has not made the West wealthy. It has, to be brief, made the East wealthy." See DeVoto, "The West," 358. Pomeroy echoed this sentiment; see Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 83, 85, 88-89, 119. Gerald Nash remains the most prominent scholar of pre-World War II western colonialism. See Nash, The American West Transformed, vii.
131. DeVoto clearly saw the West as an industrial region but one constructed by and benefiting Easterners. Such development "has not made the West wealthy. It has, to be brief, made the East wealthy." See DeVoto, "The West," 358. Pomeroy echoed this sentiment; see Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 83, 85, 88-89, 119. Gerald Nash remains the most prominent scholar of pre-World War II western colonialism. See Nash, The American West Transformed, vii.
132. Henry George, "What the Railroad Will Bring Us," Overland Monthly, 1 (1868), 297-298.
133. Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America, 23.
134. See Malone, The Battle for Butte, Robbins, Colony and Empire, Anderson and Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West; Schwantes, Hard Traveling, Peterson, The Bonanza Kings.
135. See Malone, The Battle for Butte, Robbins, Colony and Empire, Anderson and Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West; Schwantes, Hard Traveling, Peterson, The Bonanza Kings.
136. See Malone, The Battle for Butte, Robbins, Colony and Empire, Anderson and Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West; Schwantes, Hard Traveling, Peterson, The Bonanza Kings.
137. See Malone, The Battle for Butte, Robbins, Colony and Empire, Anderson and Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West; Schwantes, Hard Traveling, Peterson, The Bonanza Kings.
138. See Malone, The Battle for Butte, Robbins, Colony and Empire, Anderson and Hill, eds., The Political Economy of the American West; Schwantes, Hard Traveling, Peterson, The Bonanza Kings.
139. Stuart Daggett, Chapters in the History of the Southern Pacific (New York, 1922), 140, 142.
140. Niles M. Hansen, Border Economy: Regional Development in the Southwest (Austin, Texas, 1981), 45; Richard Orsi, "The Octopus Reconsidered: The Southern Pacific and Agricultural Modernization in California, 1865-1915," California Historical Quarterly, 54 (1975), 197-220; Orsi, "Railroads in the History of California and the Far West: An Introduction," California History, 70 (1991), 2-11; Robbins, Colony and Empire, 32.
141. Niles M. Hansen, Border Economy: Regional Development in the Southwest (Austin, Texas, 1981), 45; Richard Orsi, "The Octopus Reconsidered: The Southern Pacific and Agricultural Modernization in California, 1865-1915," California Historical Quarterly, 54 (1975), 197-220; Orsi, "Railroads in the History of California and the Far West: An Introduction," California History, 70 (1991), 2-11; Robbins, Colony and Empire, 32.
142. Niles M. Hansen, Border Economy: Regional Development in the Southwest (Austin, Texas, 1981), 45; Richard Orsi, "The Octopus Reconsidered: The Southern Pacific and Agricultural Modernization in California, 1865-1915," California Historical Quarterly, 54 (1975), 197-220; Orsi, "Railroads in the History of California and the Far West: An Introduction," California History, 70 (1991), 2-11; Robbins, Colony and Empire, 32.
143. Niles M. Hansen, Border Economy: Regional Development in the Southwest (Austin, Texas, 1981), 45; Richard Orsi, "The Octopus Reconsidered: The Southern Pacific and Agricultural Modernization in California, 1865-1915," California Historical Quarterly, 54 (1975), 197-220; Orsi, "Railroads in the History of California and the Far West: An Introduction," California History, 70 (1991), 2-11; Robbins, Colony and Empire, 32.
144. Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 27; Orsi, "The Octopus Reconsidered."
145. Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 27; Orsi, "The Octopus Reconsidered."
146. See Igler, "Industrial Cowboys," chapters 2-4.
147. Morton Rothstein, "A British Firm on the American West Coast, 1869-1914," Business History Review, 37 (1963), 392-415.
148. Stephen Birmingham, California Rich (New York, 1980), 131-135.
149. Peterson, The Bonanza Kings, 108, 137.
150. Malone, The Battle for Butte, 34-56.
151. Zunz, Making America Corporate, 10.
152. Richard Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," Urban Geography, 17 (1996), 63-67; Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 64-65.
153. Richard Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," Urban Geography, 17 (1996), 63-67; Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 64-65.
154. Jessica Teisch, "Imperial Visions: Nature's Managers in San Francisco, 1860-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2000); Paul Sabin, "Home and Abroad: The Two 'Wests' of Twentieth-Century United States History," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 305-335.
155. Jessica Teisch, "Imperial Visions: Nature's Managers in San Francisco, 1860-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2000); Paul Sabin, "Home and Abroad: The Two 'Wests' of Twentieth-Century United States History," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 305-335.
156. William Hammond Hall, Report of the State Engineer to the Legislature of the State of California, Session of 1880 (Sacramento, Calif., 1880).
157. For instance, see W. Turrentine Jackson, "The Infamous Emma Mine: A British Investment in the Little Cottonwood District, Utah Territory," Utah Historical Quarterly, 23 (1955), 339-362.
158. This and many subsequent developments of San Francisco lend support to Allan Pred's "asymmetric" model of urban expansion. Pred argues that a city's extraregional relationships are often more significant than its connection to the surrounding hinterland. As the following discussion suggests, San Francisco was tied to a global economy from its inception (and even prior to American rule, when Californios exchanged hides and tallow with international traders). At the same time, central place theory (and William Cronon's recent revision of it) still holds a great deal of analytical power when applied to the case of San Francisco and its periphery, particularly in respect to specific firms that grew outward from the city center. See Allan Pred, City-Systems in Advanced Economies (London, 1977); Cronon, Nature's Metropolis.
159. This and many subsequent developments of San Francisco lend support to Allan Pred's "asymmetric" model of urban expansion. Pred argues that a city's extraregional relationships are often more significant than its connection to the surrounding hinterland. As the following discussion suggests, San Francisco was tied to a global economy from its inception (and even prior to American rule, when Californios exchanged hides and tallow with international traders). At the same time, central place theory (and William Cronon's recent revision of it) still holds a great deal of analytical power when applied to the case of San Francisco and its periphery, particularly in respect to specific firms that grew outward from the city center. See Allan Pred, City-Systems in Advanced Economies (London, 1977); Cronon, Nature's Metropolis.
160. Robbins, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, 20 (1989), 436. On San Francisco, see William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1982); Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975); Richard Walker, "Industry Builds the City: The Suburbanization of Manufacturing in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1850-1945," The Journal of Historical Geography (forthcoming); Brechin, Imperial San Francisco; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974).
161. Robbins, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, 20 (1989), 436. On San Francisco, see William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1982); Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975); Richard Walker, "Industry Builds the City: The Suburbanization of Manufacturing in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1850-1945," The Journal of Historical Geography (forthcoming); Brechin, Imperial San Francisco; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974).
162. Robbins, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, 20 (1989), 436. On San Francisco, see William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1982); Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975); Richard Walker, "Industry Builds the City: The Suburbanization of Manufacturing in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1850-1945," The Journal of Historical Geography (forthcoming); Brechin, Imperial San Francisco; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974).
163. Robbins, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, 20 (1989), 436. On San Francisco, see William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1982); Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975); Richard Walker, "Industry Builds the City: The Suburbanization of Manufacturing in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1850-1945," The Journal of Historical Geography (forthcoming); Brechin, Imperial San Francisco; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974).
164. Robbins, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, 20 (1989), 436. On San Francisco, see William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1982); Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975); Richard Walker, "Industry Builds the City: The Suburbanization of Manufacturing in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1850-1945," The Journal of Historical Geography (forthcoming); Brechin, Imperial San Francisco; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974).
165. Robbins, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, 20 (1989), 436. On San Francisco, see William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1982); Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975); Richard Walker, "Industry Builds the City: The Suburbanization of Manufacturing in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1850-1945," The Journal of Historical Geography (forthcoming); Brechin, Imperial San Francisco; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974).
166. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 23-52; Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," 60-94; Gunther Barth, "Metropolism and Urban Elites in the Far West," in Frederic Cople Jaher, ed., The Age of Industrialism in America: Essays in Social Structure and Cultural Values (New York, 1968), 158-187.
167. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 23-52; Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," 60-94; Gunther Barth, "Metropolism and Urban Elites in the Far West," in Frederic Cople Jaher, ed., The Age of Industrialism in America: Essays in Social Structure and Cultural Values (New York, 1968), 158-187.
168. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 23-52; Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," 60-94; Gunther Barth, "Metropolism and Urban Elites in the Far West," in Frederic Cople Jaher, ed., The Age of Industrialism in America: Essays in Social Structure and Cultural Values (New York, 1968), 158-187.
169. Jacob Adler, "The Oceanic Steamship Company: A Link in Claus Spreckels' Hawaiian Sugar Empire," Pacific Historical Review, 29 (1960), 257-269; Adler, Claus Spreckels: The Sugar King in Hawaii (Honolulu, 1966).
170. Jacob Adler, "The Oceanic Steamship Company: A Link in Claus Spreckels' Hawaiian Sugar Empire," Pacific Historical Review, 29 (1960), 257-269; Adler, Claus Spreckels: The Sugar King in Hawaii (Honolulu, 1966).
171. See Sabin, "Home and Abroad," 305-335.
172. Licht, Industrializing America, xiv.
173. Michael Malone, "The Collapse of Western Metal Mining: An Historical Epitaph," Pacific Historical Review, 55 (1986), 455-464.
174. Joseph L. King, The History of the San Francisco Stock and Exchange Board (San Francisco, 1910). On the Comstock, see Eliot Lord, Comstock Mining and Miners (1883; Berkeley, 1959); and Maureen A. Jung, "The Comstocks and the California Mining Economy, 1848-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1988).
175. Joseph L. King, The History of the San Francisco Stock and Exchange Board (San Francisco, 1910). On the Comstock, see Eliot Lord, Comstock Mining and Miners (1883; Berkeley, 1959); and Maureen A. Jung, "The Comstocks and the California Mining Economy, 1848-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1988).
176. Joseph L. King, The History of the San Francisco Stock and Exchange Board (San Francisco, 1910). On the Comstock, see Eliot Lord, Comstock Mining and Miners (1883; Berkeley, 1959); and Maureen A. Jung, "The Comstocks and the California Mining Economy, 1848-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1988).
177. Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 83; Walker, "California's Debt to Nature," 8.
178. Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 83; Walker, "California's Debt to Nature," 8.
179. Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 125.
180. Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," 353.
181. Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York, 1992).
182. Stephen Aron, "Lessons of Conquest," 126; Aron, How the West Was Lost; Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest.
183. Stephen Aron, "Lessons of Conquest," 126; Aron, How the West Was Lost; Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest.
184. Stephen Aron, "Lessons of Conquest," 126; Aron, How the West Was Lost; Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest.
185. Ferol Egan, Sand in a Whirlwind: The Paiute Indian War of 1860 (Reno, Nev., 1985), 171-250; Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," 340.
186. Ferol Egan, Sand in a Whirlwind: The Paiute Indian War of 1860 (Reno, Nev., 1985), 171-250; Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," 340.
187. Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 87-127.
188. George, "What the Railroad Will Bring Us."
189. Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," 68; E. Kimbark MacColl, Merchants, Money, and Power: The Portland Establishment, 1843-1913 (Portland, Ore., 1988), 223; Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 140-143.
190. Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," 68; E. Kimbark MacColl, Merchants, Money, and Power: The Portland Establishment,
191. Walker, "Another Round of Globalization in San Francisco," 68; E. Kimbark MacColl, Merchants, Money, and Power: The Portland Establishment, 1843-1913 (Portland, Ore., 1988), 223; Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope, 140-143.
192. For a sampling of different approaches to the social impact of industrialization, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); Tamara K. Hareven and Randolph Langenbach, Amoskeag: Life and Work in an American Factory-City (New York, 1978); Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984); Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-Century Factory System in the United States, 1880-1920 (Madison, Wisc., 1995); Wiebe, The Search for Order.
193. For a sampling of different approaches to the social impact of industrialization, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); Tamara K. Hareven and Randolph Langenbach, Amoskeag: Life and Work in an American Factory-City (New York, 1978); Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984); Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-Century Factory System in the United States, 1880-1920 (Madison, Wisc., 1995); Wiebe, The Search for Order.
194. For a sampling of different approaches to the social impact of industrialization, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); Tamara K. Hareven and Randolph Langenbach, Amoskeag: Life and Work in an American Factory-City (New York, 1978); Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984); Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-Century Factory System in the United States, 1880-1920 (Madison, Wisc., 1995); Wiebe, The Search for Order.
195. For a sampling of different approaches to the social impact of industrialization, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); Tamara K. Hareven and Randolph Langenbach, Amoskeag: Life and Work in an American Factory-City (New York, 1978); Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984); Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-Century Factory System in the United States, 1880-1920 (Madison, Wisc., 1995); Wiebe, The Search for Order.
196. For a sampling of different approaches to the social impact of industrialization, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); Tamara K. Hareven and Randolph Langenbach, Amoskeag: Life and Work in an American Factory-City (New York, 1978); Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984); Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-Century Factory System in the United States, 1880-1920 (Madison, Wisc., 1995); Wiebe, The Search for Order.
197. Herbert Gutman, "The Workers' Search for Power: Labor in the Gilded Age," in Ira Berlin, ed., Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York, 1987), 70-92; Bruce Laurie, Artisans into Workers: Labor in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1989); David Montgomery, Citizen Worker: The Experience of Workers in the United States with Democracy and the Free Market during the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1993); Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society; Nelson, Managers and Workers.
198. Herbert Gutman, "The Workers' Search for Power: Labor in the Gilded Age," in Ira Berlin, ed., Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York, 1987), 70-92; Bruce Laurie, Artisans into Workers: Labor in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1989); David Montgomery, Citizen Worker: The Experience of Workers in the United States with Democracy and the Free Market during the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1993); Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society; Nelson, Managers and Workers.
199. Herbert Gutman, "The Workers' Search for Power: Labor in the Gilded Age," in Ira Berlin, ed., Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York, 1987), 70-92; Bruce Laurie, Artisans into Workers: Labor in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1989); David Montgomery, Citizen Worker: The Experience of Workers in the United States with Democracy and the Free Market during the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1993); Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society; Nelson, Managers and Workers.
200. Herbert Gutman, "The Workers' Search for Power: Labor in the Gilded Age," in Ira Berlin, ed., Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York, 1987), 70-92; Bruce Laurie, Artisans into Workers: Labor in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1989); David Montgomery, Citizen Worker: The Experience of Workers in the United States with Democracy and the Free Market during the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1993); Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society; Nelson, Managers and Workers.
201. Herbert Gutman, "The Workers' Search for Power: Labor in the Gilded Age," in Ira Berlin, ed., Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York, 1987), 70-92; Bruce Laurie, Artisans into Workers: Labor in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1989); David Montgomery, Citizen Worker: The Experience of Workers in the United States with Democracy and the Free Market during the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Eng., 1993); Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society; Nelson, Managers and Workers.
202. A brief survey of Labor History between 1990 and 1999 reveals one article dealing with the late nineteenth-century West and approximately one article per volume on the twentieth-century West. Most of these essays focus on either Los Angeles or Seattle and the Pacific Northwest.
203. Richard White's The Organic Machine addresses this issue in relation to the damming of the Columbia River. Robert Kelley's Battling the Inland Sea: American Political Culture, Public Policy, and the Sacramento Valley, 1850-1986 (Berkeley, 1989), although not directly concerned with this dynamic, contains important insights on the public realm of engineering the West's waterscape.
204. Richard White's The Organic Machine addresses this issue in relation to the damming of the Columbia River. Robert Kelley's Battling the Inland Sea: American Political Culture, Public Policy, and the Sacramento Valley, 1850-1986 (Berkeley, 1989), although not directly concerned with this dynamic, contains important insights on the public realm of engineering the West's waterscape.
205. Joseph Warren Matthews to Rebecca Matthews, April 2, 1897, Matthews Collection.
206. See Paul S. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, 24 (1945), 193-228; McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Ping Chiu, Chinese Labor in California, 1850-1880 (Madison, Wisc., 1963); and Cletus Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1981).
207. See Paul S. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, 24 (1945), 193-228; McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Ping Chiu, Chinese Labor in California, 1850-1880 (Madison, Wisc., 1963); and Cletus Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1981).
208. See Paul S. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, 24 (1945), 193-228; McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Ping Chiu, Chinese Labor in California, 1850-1880 (Madison, Wisc., 1963); and Cletus Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1981).
209. See Paul S. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, 24 (1945), 193-228; McWilliams, Factories in the Field; Ping Chiu, Chinese Labor in California, 1850-1880 (Madison, Wisc., 1963); and Cletus Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1981).
210. Schwantes, Hard Traveling, 25-45.
211. John Steinbeck, The Long Valley (New York, 1938), 302.
212. For one example of this, see Paul Parker, "Along the Dirty Plate Route," California Folklore Quarterly, 3 (1944), 16-20. For figures on western transience, see Robert A. Burchell, "Opportunity on the Frontier: Wealth-Holding in Twenty-six Northern California Counties, 1848-1880," Western Historical Quarterly, 18 (1987), 177; Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 118-120. On the undersupply of skilled harvest workers, see David Vaught, "'An Orchardist's Point of View': Harvest Labor Relations on a California Almond Ranch, 1892-1921," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 563-591.
213. For one example of this, see Paul Parker, "Along the Dirty Plate Route," California Folklore Quarterly, 3 (1944), 16-20. For figures on western transience, see Robert A. Burchell, "Opportunity on the Frontier: Wealth-Holding in Twenty-six Northern California Counties, 1848-1880," Western Historical Quarterly, 18 (1987), 177; Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 118-120. On the undersupply of skilled harvest workers, see David Vaught, "'An Orchardist's Point of View': Harvest Labor Relations on a California Almond Ranch, 1892-1921," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 563-591.
214. For one example of this, see Paul Parker, "Along the Dirty Plate Route," California Folklore Quarterly, 3 (1944), 16-20. For figures on western transience, see Robert A. Burchell, "Opportunity on the Frontier: Wealth-Holding in Twenty-six Northern California Counties, 1848-1880," Western Historical Quarterly, 18 (1987), 177; Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 118-120. On the undersupply of skilled harvest workers, see David Vaught, "'An Orchardist's Point of View': Harvest Labor Relations on a California Almond Ranch, 1892-1921," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 563-591.
215. For one example of this, see Paul Parker, "Along the Dirty Plate Route," California Folklore Quarterly, 3 (1944), 16-20. For figures on western transience, see Robert A. Burchell, "Opportunity on the Frontier: Wealth-Holding in Twenty-six Northern California Counties, 1848-1880," Western Historical Quarterly, 18 (1987), 177; Brown, No Duty to Retreat, 118-120. On the undersupply of skilled harvest workers, see David Vaught, "'An Orchardist's Point of View': Harvest Labor Relations on a California Almond Ranch, 1892-1921," Agricultural History, 69 (1995), 563-591.
216. Joseph Warren Matthews to Rebecca Matthews, April 2, 1897, Matthews Collection.
217. For Miller & Lux, ethnic segmentation rationalized such factors as wage differentials, duration of employment, and job assignments. See Igler, "Industrial Cowboys," chapter 5.
218. For data on the firm's labor segmentation practices among irrigation workers, see the Dos Palos "Time Books," 1899-1901, carton 737, Miller & Lux Collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
219. Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares, 80-85.
220. Dan De Quille, The Big Bonanza (1876; New York, 1947); quoted in Duane A. Smith, Mining America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 12.
221. Dan De Quille, The Big Bonanza (1876; New York, 1947); quoted in Duane A. Smith, Mining America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 12.
222. Moehring, "The Comstock Urban Network," 46-47.
223. Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares, 91.
224. Kelley, Battling the Inland Sea, 67-137.
225. Smith, Mining America; Malone, The Battle for Butte, 203.
226. Smith, Mining America; Malone, The Battle for Butte, 203.
227. The Butte Miner, n.d.; quoted in Smith, Mining America, 75.
228. Arthur W. Kilness and Jerry L. Simmons, "Toxic Effects of Selenium on Wildlife Species and Other Organisms," Selenium and Agricultural Drainage: Implications for San Francisco Bay and the California Environment (Tiburon, Calif., 1985), 52-60. On the transformation of the San Joaquin Valley, see Gerald Haslam, Robert Dawson, and Stephen Johnson, The Great Central Valley: California's Heartland (Berkeley, 1994), and William Preston, Vanishing Landscapes: Land and Life in the Tulare Lake Basin (Berkeley, 1981).
229. Arthur W. Kilness and Jerry L. Simmons, "Toxic Effects of Selenium on Wildlife Species and Other Organisms," Selenium and Agricultural Drainage: Implications for San Francisco Bay and the California Environment (Tiburon, Calif., 1985), 52-60. On the transformation of the San Joaquin Valley, see Gerald Haslam, Robert Dawson, and Stephen Johnson, The Great Central Valley: California's Heartland (Berkeley, 1994), and William Preston, Vanishing Landscapes: Land and Life in the Tulare Lake Basin (Berkeley, 1981).
230. Arthur W. Kilness and Jerry L. Simmons, "Toxic Effects of Selenium on Wildlife Species and Other Organisms," Selenium and Agricultural Drainage: Implications for San Francisco Bay and the California Environment (Tiburon, Calif., 1985), 52-60. On the transformation of the San Joaquin Valley, see Gerald Haslam, Robert Dawson, and Stephen Johnson, The Great Central Valley: California's Heartland (Berkeley, 1994), and William Preston, Vanishing Landscapes: Land and Life in the Tulare Lake Basin (Berkeley, 1981).
231. Nelson, Managers and Workers, ix.
232. Cronon, Nature's Metropolis, 340.
233. Steinberg, Nature Incorporated, 10-17; Smith, Mining America, 5-24; Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 13-70.
234. Steinberg, Nature Incorporated, 10-17; Smith, Mining America, 5-24; Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 13-70.
235. Steinberg, Nature Incorporated, 10-17; Smith, Mining America, 5-24; Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 13-70.
236. A large number of western firms actually do appear in Chandler's tables and appendices, which makes their lack of treatment in the text all the more disappointing. See Chandler, The Visible Hand, 503-513.
237. José Messa, oral history recorded by Frank Latta, Oct. 5, 1939, box ML 4 (1), Latta Collection, Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif.
238. For recent assessments of the Gold Rush as a pivotal event, see the essays by Maureen Jung, Daniel Cornford, David J. St. Clair, and Gerald Nash in Rawls and Orsi, eds., A Golden State, 52-104, 185-208, 276-292. A provocative counterpoint is Richard White, "The Gold Rush: Consequences and Contingencies," California History, 77 (1998), 43-54.
239. For recent assessments of the Gold Rush as a pivotal event, see the essays by Maureen Jung, Daniel Cornford, David J. St. Clair, and Gerald Nash in Rawls and Orsi, eds., A Golden State, 52-104, 185-208, 276-292. A provocative counterpoint is Richard White, "The Gold Rush: Consequences and Contingencies," California History, 77 (1998), 43-54.
240. Samuel Truett, "Neighbors By Nature: Rethinking Region, Nation, and Environmental History in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands," Environmental History, 2 (1997), 160-178; Robbins, Colony and Empire, 22-39.
241. Samuel Truett, "Neighbors By Nature: Rethinking Region, Nation, and Environmental History in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands," Environmental History, 2 (1997), 160-178; Robbins, Colony and Empire, 22-39.
242. Robbins, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," 437.