Factories in the field revisited

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 66, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 149-184

  Vaught, David ^a  

^a TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039367167     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3640626     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Chester Rowell to W. M. Giffen, Dec. 10, 1909, box 1, Chester Rowell Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Carey McWilliams, "The Farmers Get Tough," American Mercury, XXXIII (1934), 245.
2. On the preeminence of specialty crops in California's economy at the turn of the century, see Gerald D. Nash, "Stages of California's Economic Growth, 1870-1970: An Interpretation," California Historical Quarterly, LI (1972), 315-321; Mansel G. Blackford, The Politics of Business in California, 1890-1920 (Columbus, Oh., 1977), 3-12.
3. On the preeminence of specialty crops in California's economy at the turn of the century, see Gerald D. Nash, "Stages of California's Economic Growth, 1870-1970: An Interpretation," California Historical Quarterly, LI (1972), 315-321; Mansel G. Blackford, The Politics of Business in California, 1890-1920 (Columbus, Oh., 1977), 3-12.
4. Greg Critser, "The Political Rebellion of Carey McWilliams," UCLA Historical Journal, IV (1983), 46-48; McWilliams, "The Farmers Get Tough," 241; Carey McWilliams, The Education of Carey McWilliams (New York, 1978), 64-81. On Rowell, see Miles C. Everett, "Chester Harvey Rowell, Pragmatic Humanist and California Progressive" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1966).
5. Greg Critser, "The Political Rebellion of Carey McWilliams," UCLA Historical Journal, IV (1983), 46-48; McWilliams, "The Farmers Get Tough," 241; Carey McWilliams, The Education of Carey McWilliams (New York, 1978), 64-81. On Rowell, see Miles C. Everett, "Chester Harvey Rowell, Pragmatic Humanist and California Progressive" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1966).
6. Greg Critser, "The Political Rebellion of Carey McWilliams," UCLA Historical Journal, IV (1983), 46-48; McWilliams, "The Farmers Get Tough," 241; Carey McWilliams, The Education of Carey McWilliams (New York, 1978), 64-81. On Rowell, see Miles C. Everett, "Chester Harvey Rowell, Pragmatic Humanist and California Progressive" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1966).
7. Greg Critser, "The Political Rebellion of Carey McWilliams," UCLA Historical Journal, IV (1983), 46-48; McWilliams, "The Farmers Get Tough," 241; Carey McWilliams, The Education of Carey McWilliams (New York, 1978), 64-81. On Rowell, see Miles C. Everett, "Chester Harvey Rowell, Pragmatic Humanist and California Progressive" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1966).
8. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
9. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
10. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
11. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
12. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
13. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
14. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
15. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
16. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
17. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
18. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
19. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
20. This has not been true for Chinese and Japanese farmers and tenant farmers; see, for example, Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1869-1910 (Berkeley, 1986); Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (New York, 1992); James Lukes and Gary Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community Life in California's Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, Calif., 1985); Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993); Kesa Noda, Yamato Colony, 1906-1960: Livingston, California (Livingston, Calif., 1981); Sandra O. Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival: The History of Japanese Immigrant Families in California, 1907-1945" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1988). Other important exceptions include Anthea M. Hartig, "'In a World He Has Created': Class Collectivity and the Growers' Landscape of the Southern California Citrus Industry, 1890-1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 100-111; Grace H. Larson, The Economics and Structure of the Citrus Industry: Comment on Papers by H. Vincent Moses and Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell," ibid., 38-45; Michael Frederick Magliari, "California Populism, a Case Study: The Farmers' Alliance and People's Party in San Luis Obispo County, 1885-1903" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1992); Gerald L. Prescott, "Farm Gentry vs. the Grangers: Conflict in Rural America," California Historical Quarterly, LVI (1977), 328-345; Victoria Alice Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly: The Legal Transformation of Agricultural Cooperation, 1890-1943" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Ann Foley Scheuring et al., Tillers: An Oral History of Family Farms in California (New York, 1983); Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the progressive Era (New York, 1985), 128-175.
21. David Vaught, "California's Agricultural Guardians: Growers, Specialty Crops, and Labor, 1875-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1997).
22. McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 64-81; Carey McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things" (Oral History Program, University of California, Los Angeles, 1982), 50-53, 65-66; Greg Critser, "The Making of a Cultural Rebel: Carey McWilliams, 1924-1930," Pacific Historical Review, LV (1986), 226-255. For a concise description of the farm-labor strikes of the 1930s, see David Selvin, Sky Full of Storm: A Brief History of California Labor (San Francisco, 1975), 59-67.
23. McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 64-81; Carey McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things" (Oral History Program, University of California, Los Angeles, 1982), 50-53, 65-66; Greg Critser, "The Making of a Cultural Rebel: Carey McWilliams, 1924-1930," Pacific Historical Review, LV (1986), 226-255. For a concise description of the farm-labor strikes of the 1930s, see David Selvin, Sky Full of Storm: A Brief History of California Labor (San Francisco, 1975), 59-67.
24. McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 64-81; Carey McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things" (Oral History Program, University of California, Los Angeles, 1982), 50-53, 65-66; Greg Critser, "The Making of a Cultural Rebel: Carey McWilliams, 1924-1930," Pacific Historical Review, LV (1986), 226-255. For a concise description of the farm-labor strikes of the 1930s, see David Selvin, Sky Full of Storm: A Brief History of California Labor (San Francisco, 1975), 59-67.
25. McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 64-81; Carey McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things" (Oral History Program, University of California, Los Angeles, 1982), 50-53, 65-66; Greg Critser, "The Making of a Cultural Rebel: Carey McWilliams, 1924-1930," Pacific Historical Review, LV (1986), 226-255. For a concise description of the farm-labor strikes of the 1930s, see David Selvin, Sky Full of Storm: A Brief History of California Labor (San Francisco, 1975), 59-67.
26. Critser, "Political Rebellion of Carey McWilliams," 49-52; McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 75. McWilliams and Herbert Klein (using the pen name "Clive Belmont") published their initial findings in a series of articles entitled "Factories in the Field," Pacific Weekly, IV (1936), 165-167, 181-182, 188, 199-201, 231-232, 247-249, 265-267.
27. Critser, "Political Rebellion of Carey McWilliams," 49-52; McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 75. McWilliams and Herbert Klein (using the pen name "Clive Belmont") published their initial findings in a series of articles entitled "Factories in the Field," Pacific Weekly, IV (1936), 165-167, 181-182, 188, 199-201, 231-232, 247-249, 265-267.
28. Critser, "Political Rebellion of Carey McWilliams," 49-52; McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 75. McWilliams and Herbert Klein (using the pen name "Clive Belmont") published their initial findings in a series of articles entitled "Factories in the Field," Pacific Weekly, IV (1936), 165-167, 181-182, 188, 199-201, 231-232, 247-249, 265-267.
29. Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939), 7, 65, 77, 231; McWilliams, Ill Fares the Land: Migrants and Migratory Labor in the United States (Boston, 1942), 13.
30. Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939), 7, 65, 77, 231; McWilliams, Ill Fares the Land: Migrants and Migratory Labor in the United States (Boston, 1942), 13.
31. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 104; McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 76-79; McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things," 96-97; Jerold S. Auerbach, Labor and Liberty: The La Follette Committee and the New Deal (Indian-apolis, 1966), 180.
32. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 104; McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 76-79; McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things," 96-97; Jerold S. Auerbach, Labor and Liberty: The La Follette Committee and the New Deal (Indian-apolis, 1966), 180.
33. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 104; McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 76-79; McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things," 96-97; Jerold S. Auerbach, Labor and Liberty: The La Follette Committee and the New Deal (Indian-apolis, 1966), 180.
34. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 104; McWilliams, Education of Carey McWilliams, 76-79; McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things," 96-97; Jerold S. Auerbach, Labor and Liberty: The La Follette Committee and the New Deal (Indian-apolis, 1966), 180.
35. Carey McWilliams, "Foreword," in factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (1939; reprint, Santa Barbara and Salt Lake City, 1971), xi.
36. David F. Selvin, "Carey McWilliams: Reformer as Historian," California Historical Quarterly, LIII (1974), 173-180. Linda C. Majka and Theo J. Majka were organizers for the United Farm Workers of America and expressed their debt to McWilliams for his influence on their farm-labor history; see Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State (Philadelphia, 1982). For other examples of McWilliams's influence on the Chávez generation, see Mark Day, Forty Acres: César Chávez and the Farm Workers (New York, 1971); John G. Dunne, Delano: The Story of the California Grape Strike (New York, 1967); Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York, 1975); Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America's Farm Workers (New York, 1977); Ronald B. Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston, 1975).
37. David F. Selvin, "Carey McWilliams: Reformer as Historian," California Historical Quarterly, LIII (1974), 173-180. Linda C. Majka and Theo J. Majka were organizers for the United Farm Workers of America and expressed their debt to McWilliams for his influence on their farm-labor history; see Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State (Philadelphia, 1982). For other examples of McWilliams's influence on the Chávez generation, see Mark Day, Forty Acres: César Chávez and the Farm Workers (New York, 1971); John G. Dunne, Delano: The Story of the California Grape Strike (New York, 1967); Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York, 1975); Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America's Farm Workers (New York, 1977); Ronald B. Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston, 1975).
38. David F. Selvin, "Carey McWilliams: Reformer as Historian," California Historical Quarterly, LIII (1974), 173-180. Linda C. Majka and Theo J. Majka were organizers for the United Farm Workers of America and expressed their debt to McWilliams for his influence on their farm-labor history; see Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State (Philadelphia, 1982). For other examples of McWilliams's influence on the Chávez generation, see Mark Day, Forty Acres: César Chávez and the Farm Workers (New York, 1971); John G. Dunne, Delano: The Story of the California Grape Strike (New York, 1967); Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York, 1975); Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America's Farm Workers (New York, 1977); Ronald B. Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston, 1975).
39. David F. Selvin, "Carey McWilliams: Reformer as Historian," California Historical Quarterly, LIII (1974), 173-180. Linda C. Majka and Theo J. Majka were organizers for the United Farm Workers of America and expressed their debt to McWilliams for his influence on their farm-labor history; see Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State (Philadelphia, 1982). For other examples of McWilliams's influence on the Chávez generation, see Mark Day, Forty Acres: César Chávez and the Farm Workers (New York, 1971); John G. Dunne, Delano: The Story of the California Grape Strike (New York, 1967); Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York, 1975); Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America's Farm Workers (New York, 1977); Ronald B. Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston, 1975).
40. David F. Selvin, "Carey McWilliams: Reformer as Historian," California Historical Quarterly, LIII (1974), 173-180. Linda C. Majka and Theo J. Majka were organizers for the United Farm Workers of America and expressed their debt to McWilliams for his influence on their farm-labor history; see Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State (Philadelphia, 1982). For other examples of McWilliams's influence on the Chávez generation, see Mark Day, Forty Acres: César Chávez and the Farm Workers (New York, 1971); John G. Dunne, Delano: The Story of the California Grape Strike (New York, 1967); Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York, 1975); Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America's Farm Workers (New York, 1977); Ronald B. Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston, 1975).
41. David F. Selvin, "Carey McWilliams: Reformer as Historian," California Historical Quarterly, LIII (1974), 173-180. Linda C. Majka and Theo J. Majka were organizers for the United Farm Workers of America and expressed their debt to McWilliams for his influence on their farm-labor history; see Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State (Philadelphia, 1982). For other examples of McWilliams's influence on the Chávez generation, see Mark Day, Forty Acres: César Chávez and the Farm Workers (New York, 1971); John G. Dunne, Delano: The Story of the California Grape Strike (New York, 1967); Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York, 1975); Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America's Farm Workers (New York, 1977); Ronald B. Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston, 1975).
42. David F. Selvin, "Carey McWilliams: Reformer as Historian," California Historical Quarterly, LIII (1974), 173-180. Linda C. Majka and Theo J. Majka were organizers for the United Farm Workers of America and expressed their debt to McWilliams for his influence on their farm-labor history; see Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State (Philadelphia, 1982). For other examples of McWilliams's influence on the Chávez generation, see Mark Day, Forty Acres: César Chávez and the Farm Workers (New York, 1971); John G. Dunne, Delano: The Story of the California Grape Strike (New York, 1967); Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York, 1975); Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America's Farm Workers (New York, 1977); Ronald B. Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston, 1975).
43. Abraham Hoffman, "An Unusual Monument: Paul S. Taylor's Mexican Labor in the United States Monographs Series," Pacific Historical Review, XLV (1976), 255-270. The series consisted of thirteen monographs, beginning with the publication of Imperial Valley in 1928 and ending with Nueces County, Texas in 1934.
44. Paul S. Taylor and Clark Kerr, "Documentary History of the Strike of the Cotton Pickers in California, 1933," in U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on S. Res. 266, Violations of Free Speech and Rights of Labor, 74 Cong., 2 sess. (1939), part 54, pp. 19947-20036 (hereafter referred to as La Follette Committee Hearings); Dorothea Lange and Paul Taylor, An American Exodus: A Record of Human Erosion (New York, 1939); Richard Steven Street, "The Economist as Humanist: The Career of Paul S. Taylor," California History, LVIII (1979-1980), 354-356.
45. Paul S. Taylor and Clark Kerr, "Documentary History of the Strike of the Cotton Pickers in California, 1933," in U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on S. Res. 266, Violations of Free Speech and Rights of Labor, 74 Cong., 2 sess. (1939), part 54, pp. 19947-20036 (hereafter referred to as La Follette Committee Hearings); Dorothea Lange and Paul Taylor, An American Exodus: A Record of Human Erosion (New York, 1939); Richard Steven Street, "The Economist as Humanist: The Career of Paul S. Taylor," California History, LVIII (1979-1980), 354-356.
46. Paul S. Taylor and Clark Kerr, "Documentary History of the Strike of the Cotton Pickers in California, 1933," in U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on S. Res. 266, Violations of Free Speech and Rights of Labor, 74 Cong., 2 sess. (1939), part 54, pp. 19947-20036 (hereafter referred to as La Follette Committee Hearings); Dorothea Lange and Paul Taylor, An American Exodus: A Record of Human Erosion (New York, 1939); Richard Steven Street, "The Economist as Humanist: The Career of Paul S. Taylor," California History, LVIII (1979-1980), 354-356.
47. La Follette Committee Hearings, part 47, p. 17283; Paul S. Taylor, "California Social Scientist" (3 vols., Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1973), II, 53-63; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 355-356.
48. La Follette Committee Hearings, part 47, p. 17283; Paul S. Taylor, "California Social Scientist" (3 vols., Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1973), II, 53-63; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 355-356.
49. La Follette Committee Hearings, part 47, p. 17283; Paul S. Taylor, "California Social Scientist" (3 vols., Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1973), II, 53-63; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 355-356.
50. Paul S. Taylor, "Factors Which Underlie the Infringement of Civil Rights in Industrialized Agriculture," in La Follette Committee Hearings, part 62, exhibit 9573, p. 22488. While never publishing a monograph on the subject, Taylor set forth his ideas in several additional essays; see Paul S. Taylor and Tom Vasey, "Historical Background of California Farm Labor," Rural Sociology, I (1936), 281-295; Taylor and Vasey, "Contemporary Background of California Farm Labor," ibid., 401-419; Taylor, "Migratory Agricultural Workers on the Pacific Coast," American Sociological Review, III (1938), 225-232; Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, XXTV (1945), 193-228.
51. Paul S. Taylor, "Factors Which Underlie the Infringement of Civil Rights in Industrialized Agriculture," in La Follette Committee Hearings, part 62, exhibit 9573, p. 22488. While never publishing a monograph on the subject, Taylor set forth his ideas in several additional essays; see Paul S. Taylor and Tom Vasey, "Historical Background of California Farm Labor," Rural Sociology, I (1936), 281-295; Taylor and Vasey, "Contemporary Background of California Farm Labor," ibid., 401-419; Taylor, "Migratory Agricultural Workers on the Pacific Coast," American Sociological Review, III (1938), 225-232; Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, XXTV (1945), 193-228.
52. Paul S. Taylor, "Factors Which Underlie the Infringement of Civil Rights in Industrialized Agriculture," in La Follette Committee Hearings, part 62, exhibit 9573, p. 22488. While never publishing a monograph on the subject, Taylor set forth his ideas in several additional essays; see Paul S. Taylor and Tom Vasey, "Historical Background of California Farm Labor," Rural Sociology, I (1936), 281-295; Taylor and Vasey, "Contemporary Background of California Farm Labor," ibid., 401-419; Taylor, "Migratory Agricultural Workers on the Pacific Coast," American Sociological Review, III (1938), 225-232; Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, XXTV (1945), 193-228.
53. Paul S. Taylor, "Factors Which Underlie the Infringement of Civil Rights in Industrialized Agriculture," in La Follette Committee Hearings, part 62, exhibit 9573, p. 22488. While never publishing a monograph on the subject, Taylor set forth his ideas in several additional essays; see Paul S. Taylor and Tom Vasey, "Historical Background of California Farm Labor," Rural Sociology, I (1936), 281-295; Taylor and Vasey, "Contemporary Background of California Farm Labor," ibid., 401-419; Taylor, "Migratory Agricultural Workers on the Pacific Coast," American Sociological Review, III (1938), 225-232; Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, XXTV (1945), 193-228.
54. Paul S. Taylor, "Factors Which Underlie the Infringement of Civil Rights in Industrialized Agriculture," in La Follette Committee Hearings, part 62, exhibit 9573, p. 22488. While never publishing a monograph on the subject, Taylor set forth his ideas in several additional essays; see Paul S. Taylor and Tom Vasey, "Historical Background of California Farm Labor," Rural Sociology, I (1936), 281-295; Taylor and Vasey, "Contemporary Background of California Farm Labor," ibid., 401-419; Taylor, "Migratory Agricultural Workers on the Pacific Coast," American Sociological Review, III (1938), 225-232; Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," California Historical Society Quarterly, XXIV (1945), 193-228.
55. Taylor and Vasey, "Historical Background of California Farm Labor," 283.
56. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," 193; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 356-359; Mary Ellen Leary, "Paul Taylor: The Power of a Tenacious Man," The Nation, CCXIX (Oct. 12, 1974), 333-338; Paul S. Taylor, Essays on Land, Water, and the Law in California (New York, 1979). For a contem-porary criticism of Taylor's cause, see Sheridan Downey, They Would Rule the Valley (San Francisco, 1947).
57. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," 193; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 356-359; Mary Ellen Leary, "Paul Taylor: The Power of a Tenacious Man," The Nation, CCXIX (Oct. 12, 1974), 333-338; Paul S. Taylor, Essays on Land, Water, and the Law in California (New York, 1979). For a contem-porary criticism of Taylor's cause, see Sheridan Downey, They Would Rule the Valley (San Francisco, 1947).
58. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," 193; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 356-359; Mary Ellen Leary, "Paul Taylor: The Power of a Tenacious Man," The Nation, CCXIX (Oct. 12, 1974), 333-338; Paul S. Taylor, Essays on Land, Water, and the Law in California (New York, 1979). For a contem-porary criticism of Taylor's cause, see Sheridan Downey, They Would Rule the Valley (San Francisco, 1947).
59. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," 193; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 356-359; Mary Ellen Leary, "Paul Taylor: The Power of a Tenacious Man," The Nation, CCXIX (Oct. 12, 1974), 333-338; Paul S. Taylor, Essays on Land, Water, and the Law in California (New York, 1979). For a contem-porary criticism of Taylor's cause, see Sheridan Downey, They Would Rule the Valley (San Francisco, 1947).
60. Taylor, "Foundations of California Rural Society," 193; Street, "Economist as Humanist," 356-359; Mary Ellen Leary, "Paul Taylor: The Power of a Tenacious Man," The Nation, CCXIX (Oct. 12, 1974), 333-338; Paul S. Taylor, Essays on Land, Water, and the Law in California (New York, 1979). For a contem-porary criticism of Taylor's cause, see Sheridan Downey, They Would Rule the Valley (San Francisco, 1947).
61. Lloyd H. Fisher, The Harvest Labor Market in California (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), 1-11.
62. Levi Varden Fuller, "The Supply of Agricultural Labor as a Factor in the Evolution of Farm Organization in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1939); Stuart Marshall Jamieson, "Labor Unionism in American Agriculture," U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 836 (Washington, D.C., 1945), 43 (quotations); Walter J. Stein, California and the Dust Bowl Migration (Westport, Conn., 1973), 32, 65 (quotations); Walter Goldschmidt, As You Sow (Glencoe, 111., 1947).
63. Levi Varden Fuller, "The Supply of Agricultural Labor as a Factor in the Evolution of Farm Organization in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1939); Stuart Marshall Jamieson, "Labor Unionism in American Agriculture," U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 836 (Washington, D.C., 1945), 43 (quotations); Walter J. Stein, California and the Dust Bowl Migration (Westport, Conn., 1973), 32, 65 (quotations); Walter Goldschmidt, As You Sow (Glencoe, 111., 1947).
64. Levi Varden Fuller, "The Supply of Agricultural Labor as a Factor in the Evolution of Farm Organization in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1939); Stuart Marshall Jamieson, "Labor Unionism in American Agriculture," U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 836 (Washington, D.C., 1945), 43 (quotations); Walter J. Stein, California and the Dust Bowl Migration (Westport, Conn., 1973), 32, 65 (quotations); Walter Goldschmidt, As You Sow (Glencoe, 111., 1947).
65. Levi Varden Fuller, "The Supply of Agricultural Labor as a Factor in the Evolution of Farm Organization in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1939); Stuart Marshall Jamieson, "Labor Unionism in American Agriculture," U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 836 (Washington, D.C., 1945), 43 (quotations); Walter J. Stein, California and the Dust Bowl Migration (Westport, Conn., 1973), 32, 65 (quotations); Walter Goldschmidt, As You Sow (Glencoe, 111., 1947).
66. Albert Crouch, "Housing Migratory Agricultural Workers in California, 1913-1948" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948); Zelma Estelle Parker, "History of the Destitute Migrant in California, 1840-1939" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1940); Arthur Ross, "Agricultural Labor and Social Legislation" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1941); Frank Anthony Speth, "A History of Agricultural Labor in Sonoma County, California" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938); Samuel Edgerton Wood, "The California State Commission of Immigration and Housing: A Study of Administrative Organization and the Growth of Function" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1942).
67. Albert Crouch, "Housing Migratory Agricultural Workers in California, 1913-1948" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948); Zelma Estelle Parker, "History of the Destitute Migrant in California, 1840-1939" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1940); Arthur Ross, "Agricultural Labor and Social Legislation" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1941); Frank Anthony Speth, "A History of Agricultural Labor in Sonoma County, California" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938); Samuel Edgerton Wood, "The California State Commission of Immigration and Housing: A Study of Administrative Organization and the Growth of Function" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1942).
68. Albert Crouch, "Housing Migratory Agricultural Workers in California, 1913-1948" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948); Zelma Estelle Parker, "History of the Destitute Migrant in California, 1840-1939" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1940); Arthur Ross, "Agricultural Labor and Social Legislation" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1941); Frank Anthony Speth, "A History of Agricultural Labor in Sonoma County, California" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938); Samuel Edgerton Wood, "The California State Commission of Immigration and Housing: A Study of Administrative Organization and the Growth of Function" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1942).
69. Albert Crouch, "Housing Migratory Agricultural Workers in California, 1913-1948" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948); Zelma Estelle Parker, "History of the Destitute Migrant in California, 1840-1939" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1940); Arthur Ross, "Agricultural Labor and Social Legislation" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1941); Frank Anthony Speth, "A History of Agricultural Labor in Sonoma County, California" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938); Samuel Edgerton Wood, "The California State Commission of Immigration and Housing: A Study of Administrative Organization and the Growth of Function" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1942).
70. Albert Crouch, "Housing Migratory Agricultural Workers in California, 1913-1948" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948); Zelma Estelle Parker, "History of the Destitute Migrant in California, 1840-1939" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1940); Arthur Ross, "Agricultural Labor and Social Legislation" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1941); Frank Anthony Speth, "A History of Agricultural Labor in Sonoma County, California" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938); Samuel Edgerton Wood, "The California State Commission of Immigration and Housing: A Study of Administrative Organization and the Growth of Function" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1942).
71. Taylor, "California Social Scientist," I, 175. On Taylor's relationships with his students, see ibid., I, 174-177, II, 158-163; and Varden Fuller, Hired Hands in California's Farm Fields; Collected Essays on California's Farm Labor History and Policy (Oakland, Calif., 1991), vi.
72. Taylor, "California Social Scientist," I, 175. On Taylor's relationships with his students, see ibid., I, 174-177, II, 158-163; and Varden Fuller, Hired Hands in California's Farm Fields; Collected Essays on California's Farm Labor History and Policy (Oakland, Calif., 1991), vi.
73. Taylor, "California Social Scientist," I, 175. On Taylor's relationships with his students, see ibid., I, 174-177, II, 158-163; and Varden Fuller, Hired Hands in California's Farm Fields; Collected Essays on California's Farm Labor History and Policy (Oakland, Calif., 1991), vi.
74. Taylor, "California Social Scientist," I, 175. On Taylor's relationships with his students, see ibid., I, 174-177, II, 158-163; and Varden Fuller, Hired Hands in California's Farm Fields; Collected Essays on California's Farm Labor History and Policy (Oakland, Calif., 1991), vi.
75. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y, 1981), esp. chaps. 1 and 2; Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State, 3; Chan, This Bittersweet Soil, 272-301, 327.
76. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y, 1981), esp. chaps. 1 and 2; Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State, 3; Chan, This Bittersweet Soil, 272-301, 327.
77. Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y, 1981), esp. chaps. 1 and 2; Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State, 3; Chan, This Bittersweet Soil, 272-301, 327.
78. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of
79. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), 79-80; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987), chap. 3; Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994), 1, 6-7, 17, 23.
80. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), 79-80; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987), chap. 3; Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994), 1, 6-7, 17, 23.
81. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), 79-80; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987), chap. 3; Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994), 1, 6-7, 17, 23.
82. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), 79-80; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987), chap. 3; Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994), 1, 6-7, 17, 23.
83. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), 79-80; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987), chap. 3; Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994), 1, 6-7, 17, 23.
84. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), 79-80; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987), chap. 3; Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994), 1, 6-7, 17, 23.
85. See, for example, Ernesto Galaraza, Farm Workers and Agri-business in California, 1947-1960 (Notre Dame, Ind., 1977), chap. 2; Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900-1950 (Urbana, 1994), 26-27, 47-48; James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture (New York, 1989), 53-56; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), chap. 1; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 157-159; Mark Reisler, By the Sweat of Their Brow: Mexican Immigrant Labor in the United States, 1900-1940 (Westport, Conn., 1976), 79-80; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987), chap. 3; Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, 1994), 1, 6-7, 17, 23.
86. McWilliams, Fuller, and Jamieson also provided extensive testimony in the La Follette Committee Hearings (McWilliams: part 51, pp. 18712-18724; part 59, pp. 21768-21778, 21887-21919; Fuller: part 47, pp. 17307-17316; and Fuller's entire dissertation, part 54, exhibit 8762-A, pp. 19777-19898; Jamieson: part 62, exhibit 9576, pp. 22531-22540). One bibliographer has called the Hearings "the finest single source of information on rural California"; Richard S. Street, "Rural California: A Bibliographic Essay," Southern California Quarterly, LXX (1988), 300. A contemporary of Taylor and McWilliams, sociologist Nels Anderson, also depicted California as "the land of industrial agriculture" and, though to a lesser degree, is often cited in the literature; see Anderson, Men on the Move (Chicago, 1940), 75-76, 294-297. More recent affirmations of the industrial agriculture theme include Steven B. Stoll, "The Fruits of Natural Advantage: Horticulture and the Industrial Countryside in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1994); Ronald Tobey and Charles Wetherell, "The Citrus Industry and the Revolution of Corporate Capitalism in Southern California, 1887-1944," California History, LXXTV (1995), 6-21; H. Vincent Moses, "The Orange Grower Is Not a Farmer': G. Harold Powell, Riverside Orchardists, and the Coming of Industrial Agriculture, 1893-1930," ibid., 22-37.
87. Taylor and Kerr, "Documentary History of the Strike of the Cotton Pickers," 19947.
88. Chan, This Bittersweet Soil, 447, note 55; Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 34-39.
89. Chan, This Bittersweet Soil, 447, note 55; Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 34-39.
90. Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 23. Though "tending to ignore the internal organization of workers," Taylor and McWilliams, writes Weber, were "generally superb" in their treatments of "agribusiness" (226, note 3). González (Labor and Community, 6) concurs that "labor history in the citrus industry parallels labor history in California agriculture."
91. Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 7, 17-47; Gonzalez, Labor and Community, 17-42. My research indicates that citrus-marketing associations were unique in participating in labor affairs. As H. E. Erdman, an authority on California cooperatives, stated, "Members of a cooperative association often resent having the management discuss production. The management, in their opinion, has been hired to sell." Marketing cooperatives such as the California Associated Raisin Company and the California Almond Growers Exchange left labor matters to the individual grower or to informal community associations. See H. E. Erdman, "Possibilities and Limitations of Cooperative Marketing," University of California College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station Circular No. 298 (1925), 1-2.
92. Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 4; González, Labor and Community, 3.
93. Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 4; González, Labor and Community, 3.
94. Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 6, 8 (my emphasis); González, Labor and Community, 3.
95. Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 6, 8 (my emphasis); González, Labor and Community, 3.
96. Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams, 3, 5.
97. Throughout the book, for example, she maintains that growers invoked the myth of the small family farm and perpetuated the perception of immigrants as male "birds of passage" in order to deny the central importance of Mexican labor to California's agricultural economy - yet she provides little empirical evidence of this behavior so crucial to her argument. Mexican Workers and American Dreams, 13-14, 23, 25, 45, 135-136.
98. For the most-often cited version of Barker's Wheatland report, see "A Report to His Excellency Hiram W. Johnson, Governor of California, by the Commission of Immigration and Housing of California on the Causes and All Matters Pertaining to the So-Called Wheatland Hop Fields' Riot and Killing of August 3, 1913, and Containing Certain Recommendations as a Solution for the Problems Disclosed," in Carleton H. Parker, The Casual Laborer and Other Essays (New York, 1920), appendix, 171-199 (quotation, 172). See note 55 for an explanation for the different versions of the report.
99. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 154; "Violations of Free Speech and Rights of Labor," Sen. Rep. 1150, 76 Cong., 2 sess. (1942), part 3, pp. 245-247. A version of Parker's Wheatland report was entered in the La Follette Committee Hearings, part 54, exhibit 8768, pp. 20069-20073.
100. Additional accounts of the Wheatand incident that have accepted Parker's portrayal of the conditions as representative of farm labor in California are abundant: Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 88-91; Vincent DiGirolamo, The Women of Wheatland: Female Consciousness and the 1913 Wheatland Hop Strike," Labor History, XXXIV (1993), 237, 253, 254; Philip S. Foner, The Industrial Workers of the World, 1905-1917, vol. 4 of History of the Labor Movement in the United States (1963; 3d printing, New York, 1976), 279; Fuller, "Supply of Agricultural Labor," 195-196; Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams, 72-73; Jamieson, "Labor Unionism in American Agriculture," 60-63; Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State, 52-57; Don Mitchell, "State Intervention in Landscape Production: The Wheatland Riot and the California Commission of Immigration and Housing," Antipode, XXV (1993), 95; Spencer C. Olin, Jr., "European Immigrant and Oriental Alien: Acceptance and Rejection by the California Legislature of 1913," Pacific Historical Review, XXXV (1966), 304-305; Selvin, Sky Full of Storm, 33-36; Richard Steven Street, "'We Are Not Slaves': The Photographic Record of the Wheatland Hop Riot The First Images of Protesting Farm Workers in America," Southern California Quarterly, LXIV (1982), 208; Taylor, "Migratory Agricultural Workers," 225; Taylor and Kerr, "Documentary History of the Strike of the Cotton Pickers," 19947; Hyman Weintraub, The IWW in California: 1905-1931" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1947), 68-69; Woodrow C. Whitten, The Wheatland Episode," Pacific Historical Review, XVII (1948), 37-42; Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army: F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana, 1992), 5-12; Wood, "California State Commission of Immigration and Housing," 184.
101. California State Board of Agriculture, "Report of the State Statistician," Fifty-Ninth Annual Report for 1912 (Sacramento, 1913), 68-69; Thomas Forsyth Hunt et al., "Some Things the Prospective Settler Should Know," University of California College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station Circular No. 121 (1914), 10; Pacific Rural Press, Nov. 21, 1903; Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly," 169-175. Farm size alone does not define the relations of production in California agriculture, as Paul Taylor told the La Follette Committee in 1939 ("Factors Which Underlie the Infringement of Civil Rights in Industrialized Agriculture," 22489). Nonetheless, the notion that a "concentration of land ownership" has contributed heavily to California's "industrialized" agriculture as early as 1880 continues to shape scholarly and popular perceptions. See, for example, the two principal California history textbooks, James J. Rawls and Walton Bean, California: An Interpretive History (7th ed., New York, 1993), 234-235; and Richard B. Rice, William A. Bullough, and Richard J. Orsi, The Elusive Eden: A New History of California (2d ed., New York, 1996), 409-412.
102. "Immigrant Labor in California Agricultural Industries," in U.S. Congress, Senate, Reports of the Immigration Commission, "Immigrants in Industries," part 25: Japanese and Other Immigrant Races in the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States, 61 Cong., 2 sess. (1911), 8-16 (hereafter referred to as Dillingham Commission Report).
103. This description of the Newcastle fruit district is summarized primarily from T. G. Chamberlain, "Fruit Ranching Conditions in the Placer County Fruit Belt" (1916), carton 16, Elwood Mead Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; "Immigrant Labor in the Fruit Industries of the Newcastle District," Dillingham Commission Report, vol. 24, pp. 413-429; William S. Hallagan, "Labor Contracting in Turn-of-the-Century California Agriculture," Journal of Economic History, XL (1980), 757-776; and my analysis of hundreds of lease and chattel mortgage documents in Placer County, "Lessee-Lessor Index," vols. 1 and 2; "Leases and Agreements," books E-M; "Personal Mortgagee-Mortgagor Index," vols. 1, 1A, and 2; and "Personal Mortgages," books E, 5-23, Placer County Recorder's Office, Auburn, California.
104. Information on Yolo County almond growers is drawn from materials in the Pierce Family Papers and the George W. Pierce, Jr., "Daily Journals," 1890-1930, Department of Special Collections, University of California Library, Davis, California. See also David Vaught, "'An Orchardist's Point of View': Harvest Labor Relations on a California Almond Ranch, 1892-1921," Agricultural History, LXIX (1995), 563-591.
105. Fresno raisin growers are described in "Immigrant Labor in the Orchards and Vineyards of Fresno County," Dillingham Commission Report, vol. 24, pp. 573-600; William B. Secrest, Jr., comp., Fresno County Scrapbook, 1870-1899 (Fresno, 1987), copy in Department of Special Collections, Henry Madden Library, California State University, Fresno; Charles W. Clough and William B. Secrest, Jr., Fresno County - The Pioneer Years: From the Beginning to 1900 (Fresno, 1984), 143-161, 329-347; Saker, "Benevolent Monopoly," 162-189.
106. "Immigrant Labor in California Agricultural Industries," 3. The regions studied (and their principal crops) were Fresno (raisins), Newcastle (fresh deciduous), Vaca Valley (fresh and dried deciduous), Suisun Valley (fresh and dried deciduous), Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (asparagus and potatoes), Wheatland (hops), Santa Clara Valley (dried deciduous), Pajaro Valley (apples, berries, sugar beets), Tulare County foothills (citrus), Los Angeles County (citrus, sugar beets), Orange County (citrus, sugar beets), and Ventura County (sugar beets).
107. Fisher, Harvest Labor Market in California, 7-19.
108. Ibid., 48. For the study Fisher used, see "Agricultural Labor in the San Joaquin Valley," in Final Report and Recommendations of the Governor's Committee to Survey the Agricultural Resources of the San Joaquin Valley (Sacramento, 1951), 177-196.
109. In addition to sources cited in notes 38 and 39, see G. Harold Powell, Letters from the Orange Empire, edited by Richard G. Lillard (Los Angeles, 1990), 6-7; Richard G. Lillard, "Agricultural Statesman: Charles C. Teague of Santa Paula," California History, LXV (1986), 2-16; Margo McBane, "The Role of Gender in Citrus Employment: A Case Study of Recruitment, Labor, and Housing Patterns at the Limoneira Company, 1893 to 1940," California History, LXXIV (1995), 68-81.
110. For a useful overview of this literature, see Keijiro Otsuka, Hiroyuki Chuma, and Yujiro Hayami, "Land and Labor Contracts in Agrarian Economies: Theories and Facts," Journal of Economic Literature, XXX (1992), 1965-2018. See also Mukesh Eswaran and Ashok Kotwal, "A Theory of Contractual Structure in Agriculture," American Economic Review, LXXV (1985), 352-367; James Roumasset and Marilyn Uy, "Piece Rates, Time Rates, and Teams," Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, I (1980), 343-360; Joseph E. Stiglitz, "Incentives, Risk, and Information: Notes Towards a Theory of Hierarchy," Bell Journal of Economics, VI (1975), 552-579. I am grateful to Professor Alan Olmstead for introducing me to this literature. Hallagan's historical research on California agricultural labor markets ("Labor Contracting in Turn-of-the-Century California Agriculture") is one of the few attempts to probe beyond the boundaries of the Wheatland paradigm. See also R. L. Adams and William H. Smith, Jr., "Farm Tenancy in California and Methods of Leasing," University of California College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 655 (1941); Martin Brown and Peter Philips, "The Decline of the Piece-Rate System in California Canning: Technological Innovation, Labor Management, and Union Pressure, 1890-1947," Business History Review, LX (1986), 564-601.
111. Parker, "A Report to His Excellency," 172.
112. On this point, the daily journals and account books of almond grower and marketing cooperative leader George W. Pierce (note 39) are particularly illuminating. In these rich, detailed source materials, Pierce neither shows interest in the hop-picker uprising nor encounters any union efforts to organize his harvest workers. In addition, Wheatland left little or no trace in the Pacific Rural Press, the California Fruit Grower, the Proceedings of the annual Fruit Grower Conventions, or other agricultural publications.
113. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York, 1988), 102-113; Daniel Rosenberg, "The IWW and Organization of Asian Workers in Early 20th Century America," Labor History, XXXVI (1995), 77-87; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 1-25, 221-259; Joan M.Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven, 1988), 32-40, 123.
114. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York, 1988), 102-113; Daniel Rosenberg, "The IWW and Organization of Asian Workers in Early 20th Century America," Labor History, XXXVI (1995), 77-87; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 1-25, 221-259; Joan M.Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven, 1988), 32-40, 123.
115. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York, 1988), 102-113; Daniel Rosenberg, "The IWW and Organization of Asian Workers in Early 20th Century America," Labor History, XXXVI (1995), 77-87; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 1-25, 221-259; Joan M.Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven, 1988), 32-40, 123.
116. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York, 1988), 102-113; Daniel Rosenberg, "The IWW and Organization of Asian Workers in Early 20th Century America," Labor History, XXXVI (1995), 77-87; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 1-25, 221-259; Joan M.Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven, 1988), 32-40, 123.
117. Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 88-89.
118. The Simon J. Lubin Correspondence, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; the United States Commission on Industrial Relations Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison; and the published annual reports of the CCIH are the most often cited sources. Two other archival collections, however, remain virtually unexploited: Records of the California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Immigration and Housing, Bancroft Library, which contain abundant correspondence, the "Camp Inspection Register," and the "Complaint Register"; and Records of the Department of Industrial Relations, Commission of Immigration and Housing Files (especially the "Minutes of Meetings," "Executive Officer's Reports," and "Miscellaneous Correspondence"), Office of the Secretary of State, California State Archives, Sacramento.
119. Daniel, Bitter Harvest, 87-88, 91, 97; George E. Mowry, The California Progressives (Berkeley, 1951). Mowry's portrayal foreshadowed the "status revolution" thesis later elaborated by Richard Hofstadter in The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D. R. (New York, 1955).
120. Majka and Majka, Farm Workers, Agribusiness, and the State, 11-19, 56-61. The Majkas' theory of the state was based primarily on the work of Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London, 1973), Classes in Contemporary Capitalism (London, 1975), and The Problem of the Capitalist State," New Left Review, LVIII (1969), 67-78. On Wheatland and the CCIH, they relied on Parker and a few of the standard secondary works.
121. This analysis draws from David Vaught, "Wheatland, the Press, and California Progressivism" (M.A thesis, San Francisco State University, 1990), chap. 5, and Vaught, "The Politics of Social Expertise: Carleton Parker and the California Commission of Immigration and Housing, 1913-1914" (Conference paper delivered at the Davis Humanities Institute, Davis, Calif., May 21, 1990).
122. Simon Lubin to Mary Gibson, Jan. 12, 1914, box 4, Lubin Correspondence.
123. Parker sent the first draft (without Lubin's approval) to the chairman of the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations (USCIR), Frank P. Walsh, who released the report to the press on February 8, 1914. Organized Labor (Feb. 21, 1914), the California Social Democrat (Feb. 21, 1914), the California Outlook (March 14, 1914), and The Survey (March 21, 1914) published the report in full. This is also the version published in the La Follette Committee Hearings (see note 34). The second draft, addressed to the USCIR and dated March 30, 1914, opened with three new paragraphs proclaiming that Wheatland had illuminated for "the commonwealth" a "new and momentous labor epoch," stressed the CCIH's "new and vigorous analysis" of the migrant-labor problem, and contained detailed statements from hop pickers regarding the gruesome conditions on the Durst Ranch; see "Report on the Wheatland Hop-Fields Riot," U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, 1912-1915, Unpublished Records of the Division of Research and Investigations, Microfilm (Frederick, Md., 1985), reel 16, frames 0029-0072. Parker sent yet a third draft, an abridged and more restrained version of the second, to Governor Johnson on June 1, 1914. This was the version published in The Casual Laborer (see note 33).
124. The five commissioners heading the CCIH represented a cross-section of the reform coalition that carried Hiram Johnson into office in 1910. The political interests of two in particular - Paul Scharrenberg, a prominent state AFL leader, and Mary Gibson, an educational reformer and women's club activist - also strongly influenced the CCIH's policy, in ways too detailed to describe here.
125. Quoted in California Outlook, XVI (July 11, 1914), 5.
126. Parker, "A Report to His Excellency," 172.59.
127. Grower-state relations became far more complex by the 1930s when a relatively small number of large growers dominated California agriculture politically and in labor relations, but that is a subject beyond the scope of this essay. For a useful critique of "state-centered" analysis of social policy, see Alan Brinkley, "For Their Own Good," review of Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States, by Theda Skocpol, in the New York Review of Books (May 26, 1994), 40-43. Two California studies which have attempted to "bring the state back in" are Steven P. Erie, "How the Urban West Was Won: The Local State and Economic Growth in Los Angeles, 1880-1932," Urban Affairs Quarterly, XXVII (1992), 519-554; and John Walton, Western Times and Water Wars: State, Culture, and Rebellion in California (Berkeley, 1992). See also Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York, 1987), 106-122, for a penetrating analysis of the "ideological transformation" in government regulation during the early twentieth century.
128. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 158.
129. Interview with Herbert Gutman conducted by Mike Merrill in 1982, in Henry Abelove et al, eds., Visions of History (New York, 1983), 199-200. See David Brody, "Reconciling the Old Labor History and the New," Paafic Historical Review, LXII (1993) ,1-18, for a provocative analysis that places in historical perspective the tension between presentist and antipresentist impulses in the new labor history.
130. Gutman interview, Visions of History, 200; Taylor, "California Social Scientist," I, 162 (emphasis in the original); Street, "Economist as Humanist," 350-351.
131. McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things," 66-67; "Foreword" to Factories in the Field reprint, viii.
132. McWilliams, "Honorable in All Things," 66-67; "Foreword" to Factories in the Field reprint, viii.
133. This is my objective in my dissertation, cited in note 5.
134. Donald J. Pisani, From the Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley, 1984), 128, 283 (regarding McWilliams). See also Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London, 1990), 378-384; James R. Kluger, Turning on Water with a Shovel: The Career of Elwood Mead (Albuquerque, 1992); Lawrence B. Lee, "William E. Smythe and the Irrigation Movement: A Reconsideration," Pacific Historical Review, XLI (1972), 289-311; Starr, Inventing the Dream, 168-172.
135. Robert C. McMath, Jr., "Sandy Land and Hogs in the Timber: (Agri)cultural Origins of the Farmers' Alliance in Texas," in Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude, eds., The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation: Essays in the Social History of Rural America (Chapel Hill, 1985), 206; McMath, American Populism; A Social History, 1877-1898 (New York, 1993), 50-53. See also Douglas Cazaux Sackman, "'By Their Fruits Ye Shall Know Them': 'Nature Cross Culture Hybridization' and the California Citrus Industry, 1893-1939," California History, LXXIV (1995), 84.
136. Elna Bakker, An Island Called California: An Ecological Introduction to Its Natural Communities (Berkeley, 1971), 147-157; Robert W. Hodgson, "The California Fruit Industry," Economic Geography, IX (1936), 337-344; Ann Foley Scheuring, ed., A Guidebook to California Agriculture (Berkeley, 1983), 1-5, 43-63.
137. Charles Howard Shinn, "Early Horticulture in California," Overland Monthly, VI (1885), 117.
138. Edward J. Wickson, The California Fruits and How to Grow Them (7th ed., San Francisco, 1914), 10; Pacific Rural Press, July 15, 1899.
139. Edward J. Wickson, The California Fruits and How to Grow Them (7th ed., San Francisco, 1914), 10; Pacific Rural Press, July 15, 1899.
140. Pacific Rural Press, Jan. 7, 1899, Aug. 9, 1902; Newcastle News, July 30, Aug. 13, 1902, April 29, 1903; Edward J. Wickson, The California Fruits and Haw to Grow Them (2nd ed., San Francisco, 1891), 301; Joseph A. McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley (2 vols., New York, 1961), I, 386.
141. In addition to the shipping houses, the town contained two hotels, three grocery stores, two dry goods stores, one livery stable, one drug store, one carriage factory, two blacksmith shops, two real-estate agencies, two saloons, one shoemaker's shop, one meat market, one carpenter shop, and a printing office. Newcastle News, Jan. 2, 1889. See also ibid., Nov. 30, 1887, March 7, July 11, Dec. 12, 1888, May 20, 1891, May 17, 1893.
142. W. B. Lardner and M. J. Brock, History of Placer and Nevada Counties (Los Angeles, 1924), 233.
143. Quoted in B. M. Lelong, "California Horticulturally," in California State Board of Horticulture, Annual Report for 1892 (Sacramento, 1892), 38-40.
144. A specialty-crop community, therefore, was similar to what others have termed a "middle landscape," a place not generally associated with California, however. See David Alan Johnson, Founding the Far West: California, Oregon, and Nevada, 1840-1890 (Berkeley, 1992), 8.
145. Pacific Rural Press, June 11, 1904; George Robertson, "The California Fruit Industry," Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Convention of the California Slate Fruit Growers, December 6-9, 1910 (Sacramento, 1910), 88.
146. Richard J. Orsi, "Selling the Golden State: A Study of Boosterism in Nineteenth-Century California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1973), 1-113 (quotation, 73); Newcastle News, Dec. 28, 1887.
147. George D. Kellogg, "Fruit Packing, Marketing, and Transportation," Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Fruit Growers' Convention, December 2-5, 1902, in California State Board of Horticulture, Eighth Biennial Report for 1901-1902 (Sacramento, 1903), 304-308; P. W. Butler, "Peach Culture," Official Report of the Tenth Fruit Growers' Convention of the State of California, November 20-23, 1888 (Sacramento, 1889), 71-74; Placer County Republican, Dec. 15, 1893; California Fruit Grower, Dec. 8, 1888, May 16, June 27, 1891; Pacific Rural Press, Dec. 20, 1890.
148. George D. Kellogg to P. J. Healey, April 26, 1886, catalogued as a single letter in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. For a detailed description of thirty-nine Newcastle district fruit ranches, see California Fruit Grower, April 11, 18, 25, May 2, 1891. See also Sacramento Daily Record-Union, July 2, 1887; statement of J. M. Francis (No. 10) in "Statements of Fruit Ranch Owners of Placer County," compiled by T. G. Chamberlain, June 1916, carton 17, Mead Papers; R. L. Adams, Farm Management: A Text-Book for Student, Investigator, and Investor (New York, 1921), 114; H. A. Millis, The Japanese Problem in the United States (New York, 1915), 114.
149. On the background, culture, and rural experiences of Japanese immigrants in California, see Yamato Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States (1932; reprint, New York, 1969), 65-82, 178-191; Iwata, Planted in Good Soil, 1-26, 153-392; Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York, 1989), 179-229; and Uyeunten, "Struggle and Survival," 1-123. The best source on anti-Japanese sentiment remains Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley, 1962).
150. Interview with J. E. Bergtholdt, Newcastle, Calif., Nov. 11, 1924 (no. 40), and interview with Lee Tudsbury, Loomis, Calif., Nov. 18, 1924 (no. 51), both in Eliot Mears, "102 Interviews with Employers of Farm Workers," box 35, Survey of Race Relations Collection, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University.
151. On this point in a broader context, see Gavin Wright, "American Agriculture and the Labor Market What Happened to Proletarianization?" in Morton Rothstein and Daniel Field, eds., Quantitative Studies in Agrarian History (Ames, Iowa, 1993), 179-206.
152. Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore, 1995), 2.