The ins and outs of DNA fingerprinting the infectious fungi

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 13, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 332-370

  Soll, David R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANDIDA ALBICANS; DNA FINGERPRINTING; DNA PROBE; DNA SEQUENCE; FUNGUS; GENETIC ORGANIZATION; KARYOTYPING; MOLECULAR CLONING; NONHUMAN; RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM; REVIEW;

DNA FINGERPRINTING; DNA PROBES; DNA, FUNGAL; FUNGI; HUMANS; MYCOLOGICAL TYPING TECHNIQUES; MYCOSES; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; RANDOM AMPLIFIED POLYMORPHIC DNA TECHNIQUE; SOFTWARE;

CANDIDA ALBICANS; FUNGI;

EID: 0034035658     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.13.2.332-370.2000     Document Type: Review

References (438)

1. Alsina, A., M. Mason, R. A. Uphoff, W. S. Riggsby, J. M. Becker, and D. Murphy. 1988. Catheter-associated Candida utilis fungemia in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: species verification with a molecular probe. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:621-624.
2. Anderson, J. M., R. Mihalik, and D. R. Soll. 1990. Ultrastructure and antigenicity of the unique cell wall "pimple" of the Candida opaque phenotype. J. Bacteriol. 172:224-235.
3. Anderson, J. M., T. Srikantha, B. Morrow, S. H. Miyasaki, T. C. White, N. Agabian, J. Schmid, and D. R. Soll. 1993. Characterization and partial nucleotide sequence of the DNA fingerprinting probe Ca3 of Candida albicans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:1472-1480.
4. Anderson, J. M., and D. R. Soll. 1987. Unique phenotype of opaque cells in the "white-opaque transition" of Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol. 169:5579-5588.
5. Anderson, M. J., K. Gull, and D. W. Denning. 1996. Molecular typing by random amplification of polymorphic DNA and M13 southern hybridization of related paired isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:87-93.
6. Anthony, R. M., J. Midgley, S. P. Sweet, and S. A. Howell. 1995. Multiple strains of Candida albicans in the oral cavity of HIV positive and HIV negative patients. Microbiol. Ecol. Health Dis. 8:23-30.
7. Arif, S., T. Barkham, E. G. Power, and S. A. Howell. 1996. Techniques for investigation of an apparent outbreak of infections with Candida glabrata. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:2205-2209.
8. Arnavielhe, S., A. Blancard, M. Mallie, M. Quilici, and J. M. Bastide. 1997. Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis analysis of Candida albicans isolates from three intensive care units. An epidemiological study. Mycoses 40:159-167.
9. Arnavielhe, S., A. Blancard, M. Mallie, F. Gouin, A. Ottomani, J. C. Manelli, and J. M. Bastide. 1996. Mycological monitoring of Candida albicans infections in various hospital care units. Molecular typing of isolated strains and epidemiological survey. Pathol. Biol. 44:447-451. (In French.)
10. Asakura, K., S. Iwaguchi, M. Homma, T. Sukai, K. Higashide, and K. Tanaka. 1991. Elcctrophoretic karyotypes of clinically isolated yeasts of Candida albicans and C. glabrata. J. Gen. Microbiol. 137:2531-2538.
11. Aufauvre-Brown, A., J. Cohen, and D. W. Holden. 1992. Use of randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers to distinguish isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:2991-2993.
12. Avise, J. C. 1994. Molecular markers, natural history and evolution. Chapman & Hall, New York, N.Y.
13. Backeljau, T., L. De Bruyn, H. De Wolf, S. Jordaens, S. Van Dongen, and B. Winnepenninckx. 1996. Multiple UPGMA and neighbor-joining trees and the performance of some computer packages. Mol. Biol. Evol. 13:309-313.
14. Balan, I., A. M. Alarco, and M. Raymond. 1997. The Candida albicans CDR3 gene codes for an opaque-phase ABC transporter. J. Bacteriol. 179:7210-7218.
15. Baleiras Couto, M. M., J. T. Vogels, H. Hofstra, J. H. Huis in't Veld, and J. M. van der Vossen. 1995. Random amplified polymorphic DNA and restriction enzyme analysis of PCR amplified rDNA in taxonomy: two identification techniques for food-borne yeasts. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 79:525-535.
16. Barbour, A. 1989. Antigenic variation in relapsing fever Borrelia species: genetic aspects, p. 783-790. In D. E. Berg and M. M. Howe (ed.), Mobile DNA. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
17. Barchiesi, F., D. Arzeni, M. S. Del Prete, A. Sinicco, L. Falconi Di Francesco, M. B. Pasticci, L. Lamura, M. M. Nuzzo, F. Burzacchini, S. Coppola, F. Chiodo, and G. Scalise. 1998. Fluconazole susceptibility and strain variation of Candida albicans isolates from HIV-infected patients with oropharyngeal candidosis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 41:541-548.
18. Barchiesi, F., R. J. Hollis, M. Del Poeta, D. A. McGough, G. Scalise, M. G. Rinaldi, and M. A. Pfaller. 1995. Transmission of fluconazole-resistant Candida albicans between patients with AIDS and oropharyngeal candidiasis documented by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21: 561-564.
19. Barchiesi, F., L. F. Di Francesco, P. Compagnucci, D. Arzeni, O. Cirioni, and Scalise, G. 1997. Genotypic identification of sequential Candida albicans isolates from AIDS patients by polymerase chain reaction techniques. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16:601-605.
20. Barchiesi, F., R. J. Hollis, S. A. Messer, G. Scalise, M. G. Rinaldi, and M. A. Pfaller. 1995. Electrophoretic karyotype and in vitro antifungal susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from AIDS patients. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 23:99-103.
21. Bart-Delabesse, E., P. Boiron, A. Carlotti, and B. Dupont. 1993. Candida albicans genotyping in studies with patients with AIDS developing resistance to fluconazole. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:2933-2937.
22. Bart-Delabesse, E., H. van Deventer, W. Goessens, J. L. Poirot, N. Lioret, A. van Belkum, and F. Dromer. 1995. Contribution of molecular typing methods and antifungal susceptibility testing to the study of a candidemia cluster in a burn care unit. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:3278-3283.
23. Barton, R. C., A. van Belkum, and S. Scherer. 1995. Stability of karyotype in serial isolates of Candida albicans from neutropenic patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:794-796.
24. Beck-Sague, C. M., and W. R. Jarvis. 1993. Secular trends in the epidemiology of nosocomial fungal infections in the United States, 1980-1990. J. Infect. Dis. 167:1247-1251.
25. Bennett, J. E., K. J. Kwon-Chung, and D. H. Howard. 1977. Epidemiologic differences among serotypes of Cryptococcus neoformans. Am. J. Epidemiol. 105:582-586.
26. Berenguer, J., T. M. Diaz-Guerra, B. Ruiz-Diez, J. C. Bernaldo de Quiros, J. L. Rodriguez-Tudela, and J. V. Martinez-Suarez. 1996. Genetic dissimilarity of two fluconazole-resistant Candida albicans strains causing meningitis and oral candidiasis in the same AIDS patient. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1542-1545.
27. Berlocher, S. H. 1981. A comparison of molecular and morphological data, and phenetic and cladistic methods, in the estimation of phylogeny in Rhagoletis (Diptera: Tephritidae), p. 1-31. In W. W. Stock (ed.), Applications of genetics and cytology in insect systematics and evolution. University of Idaho Press, Moscow.
28. Bertout, S., F. Renaud, D. Swinne, M. Mallie, and J. M. Bastide. 1999. Genetic multilocus studies of different strains of Cryptococcus neoformans: taxonomy and genetic structure. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:715-720.
29. Betremieux, P., S. Chevrier, G. Quindos, D. Sullivan, L. Polonelli, and C. Guiguen. 1994. Use of DNA fingerprinting and biotyping methods to study a Candida albicans outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 13:899-905.
30. Blaschke-Hellmessen, R. 1996. Fluconazole and intraconazole susceptibility testing with clinical yeast isolates and algae of the genus Prototheca by means of the E test. Mycoses 39:39-43.
31. Blattner, F. R., G. Plunkett, C. A. Block, N. T. Perna, V. Burland, M. Riley, J. Collado-Vides, J. D. Glasner, C. K. Rode, G. F. Mayhew, J. Gregor, N. W. Davis, H. A. Kirkpatrick, M. A. Goeden, D. J. Rose, B. Mau, and Y. Shao. 1997. The complete genome sequence of Escherichia coli K-12. Science 277:1453-1474.
32. Boekhout, T., and A. van Belkum. 1997. Variability of karyotypes and RAPD types in genetically related strains of Cryptococcus neoformans. Curr. Genet. 32:203-208.
33. Boekhout, T., A. van Belkum, A. C. Leenders, H. A. Verbrugh, P. Mukamurangwa, D. Swinne, and W. A. Scheffers. 1997. Molecular typing of Cryptococcus neoformans: taxonomic and epidemiological aspects. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47:432-442.
34. Boerlin, P., F. Boerlin-Petzold, C. Durussel, M. Addo, J. L. Pagani, J. P. Chave, and J. Bille. 1995. Cluster of oral atypical Candida albicans isolates in a group of human immunodeficiency virus-positive drug users. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1129-1135.
35. Boerlin, P., F. Boerlin-Petzold, J. Goudet, C. Durussel, J. L. Pagani, J. P. Chave, and J. Bille. 1996. Typing Candida albicans oral isolates from human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis and DNA fingerprinting. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1235-1248.
36. Bonacorsi, S. P., A. Munck, M. Gerardin, C. Doit, N. Brahimi, J. Navarro, and E. Bingen. 1996. In situ management and molecular analysis of candidaemia related to a totally implantable vascular access in a cystic fibrosis patient. J. Infect. 33:49-51.
37. Bostock, A., M. N. Khattak, R. Matthews, and J. Burnie. 1993. Comparison of PCR fingerprinting, by random amplification of polymorphic DNA, with other molecular typing methods for Candida albicans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:2179-2184.
38. Branchini, M. L., D. C. Geiger, O. Fischman, and A. C. Pignatari. 1995. Molecular typing of Candida albicans strains isolated from nosocomial candidemia. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 37:483-487.
39. Branchini, M. L., M. A. Pfaller, J. Rhine-Chalberg, T. Frempong, and H. D. Isenberg. 1994. Genotypic variation and slime production among blood and catheter isolates of Candida parapsilosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:452-456.
40. Brandt, M. E., S. L. Bragg, and R. W. Pinner. 1993. Multilocus enzyme typing of Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:2819-2823.
41. Brandt, M. E., L. C. Hutwagner, L. A. Klug, W. S. Baughman, D. Rimland, E. A. Graviss, R. J. Hamill, C. Thomas, P. G. Pappas, A. L. Reingold, and R. W. Pinner. 1996. Molecular subtype distribution of Cryptococcus neoformans in four areas of the United States. Cryptococcal Disease Active Surveillance Group. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:912-917.
42. Brandt, M. E., L. C. Hutwagner, R. J. Kuykendall, and R. W. Pinner. 1995. Comparison of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis and random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis for molecular subtyping of Cryptococcus neoformans. Cryptococcal Disease Active Surveillance Group. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1890-1895.
43. Brandt, M. E., M. A. Pfaller, R. A. Hajjeh, E. A. Graviss, J. Rees, E. D. Spitzer, R. W. Pinner, and L. W. Mayer. 1996. Molecular subtypes and antifungal susceptibilities of serial Cryptococcus neoformans isolates in human immunodeficiency virus-associated Cryptococcosis. Cryptococcal Disease Active Surveillance Group. J. Infect. Dis. 174:812-820.
44. Brawner, D. L. 1991. Comparison between methods for serotyping of Candida albicans produces discrepencies in results. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:1020-1025.
45. Brawner, D. L., and J. E. Cutler. 1989. Oral Candida albicans isolates from nonhospitalized normal carriers, immunocompetent hospitalized patients, and immunocompromised patients with or without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:1335-1341.
46. Brody, H., and J. Carbon. 1989. Electrophoretic karyotype of Aspergillus nidulans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6260-6263.
47. Bross, J., G. H. Talbot, G. Maislin, S. Hurwitz, and B. L. Strom. 1989. Risk factors for nosocomial candidemia: a case-control study in adults without leukemia. Am. J. Med. 87:614-620.
48. Brown-Thomsen, J. 1968. Variability in Candida albicans (Robin) Berkhous. Hereditas 60:335-398.
49. Brunk, C. F., E. Avaniss-Aghajani, and C. A. Brunk. 1996. A computer analysis of primer and probe hybridization potential with bacterial small-subunit rRNA sequences. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:872-879.
50. Buesching, W. J., K. Kurek, and G. D. Roberts. 1979. Evaluation of the modified API 20C system for identification of clinically important yeasts. J. Clin. Microbiol. 9:565-569.
51. Buflington, J., R. Reporter, B. A. Lasker, M. M. McNeil, J. M. Lanson, L. A. Ross, L. Mascola, and W. R. Jarvis. 1994. Investigation of an epidemic of invasive aspergillosis: utility of molecular typing with the use of random amplified polymorphic DNA probes. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 13:386-393.
52. Bunetel, L., and J. Deunff. 1993. Isoenzymes et mycologie médicale. J. Mycol. Med. 3:45-48.
53. Burgener-Kairuz, P., J. P. Zuber, P. Jaunin, T. G. Buchman, J. Bille, and M. Rossier. 1994. Rapid detection and identification of Candida albicans and Torulopsis (Candida) glabrala in clinical specimens by species-specific nested PCR amplification of a cytochrome P-450 lanosterol-alpha-demethylase (L1A1) gene fragment. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:1902-1907.
54. Burnie, J. P. 1986. Candida and hands. J. Hosp. Infect. 8:1-4.
55. Burnie, J. P., A. Coke, and R. C. Matthews. 1992. Restriction endonuclease analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus DNA. J. Clin. Pathol. 45:324-327.
56. Burnie, J. P., F. C. Odds, W. Lee, C. Webster, and J. D. Williams. 1985. Outbreak of systemic Candida albicans in intensive care unit caused by cross infection. Br. Med. J. Clin. Res. Ed. 290:746-748.
57. Burt, A., D. A. Carter, G. L. Koenig, T. J. White, and J. W. Taylor. 1996. Molecular markers reveal cryptic sex in the human pathogen Coccidioides immitis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:770-773.
58. Burt, A., B. M. Dechairo, G. L. Koenig, D. A. Carter, T. J. White, and J. W. Taylor. 1997. Molecular markers reveal differentiation among isolates of Coccidioides immitis from California. Arizona and Texas. Mol. Ecol. 6:781-786.
59. Caetano-Anollés, G. 1993. Amplifying DNA with arbitrary oligonucleotide primers. Genome Res. 3:85-94.
60. Carle, G. F., and M. V. Olson. 1984. Separation of chromosomal DNA molecules from yeast by orthogonal-field-alternation gel electrophoresis. Nucleic Acids Res. 12:5647-5664.
61. Carle, G. F., and M. V. Olson. 1985. An electrophoretic karyotype of yeast. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:3756-3760.
62. Carlotti, A., R. Grillot, A. Couble, and J. Villard. 1994. Typing of Candida krusei clinical isolates by restriction endonuclease analysis and hybridization with the CkF1,2 DNA probe. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:1691-1699.
63. Carruba, G., E. Pontieri, F. De Bernardis, P. Martino, and A. Cassone. 1991. DNA fingerprinting and electrophoretic karyotype of environmental and clinical isolates of Candida parapsilosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:916-922.
64. Carter, D. A., A. Burt, J. W. Taylor, G. L. Koenig, and T. J. White. 1996. Clinical isolates of Histoplasma capsulatum from Indianapolis have a recombining population structure. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:2577-2584.
65. Casadevall, A., L. F. Freundlich, L. Marsh, and M. D. Scharff. 1992. Extensive allelic variation in Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:1080-1084.
66. Casal, M., and M. J. Linares. 1983. Preliminary investigations of Candida albicans biovars. J. Clin. Microbiol. 18:430-431.
67. Caugant, D. A., and P. Sandven. 1993. Epidemiological analysis of Candida albicans strains by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:215-220.
68. Chaturvedi, V., T. Flynn, W. G. Niehaus, and B. Wong. 1996. Stress tolerance and pathogenic potential of a mannitol mutant of Cryptococcus neoformans. Microbiology 142:937-943.
69. Chazalet, V., J. P. Debeaupuis, J. Sarfati, J. Lortholary, P. Ribaud, P. Shah, M. Cornet, H. Vu Thien, E. Gluckman, G. Brucker, and J. P. Latge. 1998. Molecular typing of environmental and patient isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus from various hospital settings. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:1494-1500.
70. Chen, F., B. P. Currie, L. C. Chen, S. G. Spitzer, E. D. Spitzer, and A. Casadevall. 1995. Genetic relatedness of Cryptococcus neoformans clinical isolates grouped with the repetitive DNA probe CNRE-1. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33.-2818-2822.
71. Chen, S. C., A. G. Brownlee, T. C. Sorrell, P. Ruma, and G. Nimmo. 1996. Identification by random amplification of polymorphic DNA of a common molecular type of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans in patients with AIDS or other immunosuppressive conditions. J. Infect. Dis. 173:754-758.
72. Chen, S. C., B. J. Currie, H. M. Campbell, D. A. Fisher, T. J. Pfeiffer, D. H. Ellis, and T. C. Sorrell. 1997. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii infection in northern Australia: existence of an environmental source other than known host eucalypts. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 91:547-550.
73. Chibana, H., S.-I. Iwaguchi, M. Homma, A. Chindamporn, Y. Nakagawa, and K. Tanaka. 1994. Diversity of tandemly repetitive sequences due to short periodic repetitions in the chromosomes of Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol. 176:3851-3858.
74. Chibana, H., B. B. Magee, S. Grindle, Y. Ran, S. Scherer, and P. T. Magee. 1998. A physical map of chromosome 7 of Candida albicans. Genetics 149:1739-1752.
75. Childress, C. M., I. A. Holder, and A. N. Neely. 1989. Modifications of a Candida albicans biotyping system. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:1392-1394.
76. Chindamporn, A., Y. Nakagawa, I. Mizuguchi, H. Chibana, M. Doi, and K. Tanaka. 1998. Repetitive sequences in (RPSs) in the chromosomes of Candida albicans are sandwiched bstween two novel stretches, HOK and RB2, cominon to each chromosome. Microbiology 144:849-857.
77. Clemons, K. V., F. Feroze, K. Holmberg, and D. A. Stevens. 1997. Comparative analysis of genetic variability among Candida albicans isolates from different geographic locales by three genotypic methods. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:1332-1336.
78. Clemons, K. V., G. S. Shankland, M. D. Richardson, and D. A. Stevens. 1991. Epidemiologic study by DNA typing of a Candida albicans outbreak in heroin addicts. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:205-207.
79. Coleman, D., D. Sullivan, B. Harrington, K. Haynes, M. Henman, D. Shanley, D. Bennett, G. Moran, C. McCreary, and L. O'Neill. 1997. Molecular and phenotypic analysis of Candida dubliniensis: a recently identified species linked with oral candidosis in HIV-infected and AIDS patients. Oral Dis. 3:S96-S101.
80. Coleman, D. C., D. J. Sullivan, D. E. Bennett, G. P. Moran, H. J. Barry, and D. B. Shanley. 1997. Candidiasis: the emergence of a novel species, Candida dubliniensis. AIDS 11:557-567.
81. Cormican, M. G., R. J. Hollis, and M. A. Pfaller. 1996. DNA macrorestriction profiles and antifungal susceptibility of Candida (Torulopsis) glabrata. Diagn. Microbiol. and Infect. Dis. 25:83-87.
82. Currie, B. P., L. F. Freundlich, and A. Casadevall. 1994. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from environmental (pigeon exereta) and clinical sources in New York City. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:1188-1192.
83. Dahl, K. M., E. J. Keath, V. J. Fraser, and W. G. Powderly. 1997. Molecular epidemiology of mucosal candidiasis in HIV-positive women. 1997. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 13:485-491.
84. D'Antonio, D., B. Violante, A. Mazzoni, T. Bonfini, M. A. Capuani, F. D'Aloia, A. Iacone, F. Schioppa, and F. Romano. 1998. A nosocomial cluster of Candida inspicua infections in patients with hematological malignancies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:792-795.
85. De Bernardis, F., F. A. Mühlschlegel, A. Cassone, and W. A. Fonzi. 1998. The pH of the host niche controls gene expression in and virulence of Candida albicans. Infect. Immun. 66:3317-3325.
86. Del Castillo, L., J. Bikandi, A. Nieto, G. Quindos, R. Sentandreu, and J. Ponton. 1997. Comparison of morphotypic and genotypic methods for strain delineation in Candida. Mycoses 40:445-450.
87. Denning, D. W., G. S. Shankland, and D. A. Stevens. 1991. DNA fingerprinting of Aspergillus fumigatus isolates from patients with aspergilloma. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 29:339-342.
88. Desjardins, P., B. Picard, B. Kaltenbock, J. Elion, and E. Denamur. 1995. Sex in Escherichia coli does not disrupt the clonal structure of the population: evidence from random amplified polymorphic DNA and restriction-fragment-lengfh polymorphism. J. Mol. Evol. 41:440-448.
89. Devereux, J., P. Haeberli, and O. Smithies. 1984. A comprehensive set of sequence analysis programs for the VAX. Nucleic Acids Res. 12:387-395.
90. Diaz-Guerra, T. M., J. V. Martinez-Suarez, F. Laguna, and J. L. Rodriguez-Tudela. 1997. Comparison of four molecular typing methods for evaluating genetic diversity among Candida albicans isolates from human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients with oral candidiasis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:856-861.
91. Diaz-Guerra, T. M., J. V. Martinez-Suarez, F. Laguna, E. Valencia, and J. L. Rodriguez-Tudela. 1998. Change in fluconazole susceptibility patterns and genetic relationship among oral Candida albicans isolates. AIDS 12: 1601-1610.
92. Dib, J. C., M. Dube, C. Kelly, M. G. Rinaldi, and J. E. Patterson. 1996. Evaluation of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis as a typing system for Candida rugosa: comparison of karyotype and restriction fragment length polymorphisms. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1494-1496.
93. Diekema, D. J., S. A. Messer, R. J. Hollis, R. P. Wenzel, and M. A. Pfaller. 1997. An outbreak of Candida parapsilosis prosthetic valve endocarditis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29:147-153.
94. Doebbeling, B. N., R. J. Hollis, H. D. Isenberg, R. P. Wenzel, and M. A. Pfaller. 1991. Restriction fragment analysis of a Candida tropicalis outbreak of sternal wound infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:1268-1270.
95. Doebbeling, B. N., P. F. Lehmann, R. J. Hollis, L. C. Wu, A. F. Widmer, A. Voss, and M. A. Pfaller. 1993. Comparison of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis with isoenzyme profiles as a typing system for Candida tropicalis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16:377-383.
96. Doi, M., M. Homma, S. Iwaguchi, K. Horibe, and K. Tanaka. 1994. Strain relatedness of Candida albicans strains isolated from children with leukemia and their bedside parents. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:2253-2259.
97. Doi, M., I. Mizuguchi, M. Homma, and K. Tanaka. 1994. Electrophoretic karyotypes of isolates of Candida albicans from hospitalized patients. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 32:133-140.
98. Doi, M., I. Mizuguchi, M. Homma, and K. Tanaka. 1994. Electrophoretic karyotypes of Candida yeasts recurrently isolated from single patients. Microbiol. Immun. 38:19-23.
99. Donelson, J. E. 1989. DNA rearrangements and antigenic variation in African trypanosomes, p. 763-782. In D. E. Berg and M. M. Howe (ed.), Mobile DNA. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
100. Donovan, W. H., R. Hull, and C. D. Rossi. 1996. Analysis of gram negative recolonization of the neuropathic bladder among patients with spinal cord injuries. Spin. Cord 34:587-591.
101. Dromer, F., L. Improvisi, B. Dupont, M. Eliaszewicz, G. Pialoux, S. Fournier, and V. Feullie. 1997. Oral transmission of Candida albicans between partners in HIV-infected couples could contribute to dissemination of fluconazole-resistant isolates. AIDS 11:1095-1101.
102. Dromer, F., A. Varma, O. Ronin, S. Mathoalin, and B. Dupont. 1994. Molecular typing of Cryptococcus neoformans serotype D clinical isolates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:2364-2371.
103. Drouhet, E., L. Mercier-Soucy, and S. Montplaisir. 1975. Sensibilite et resistance des levures pathogenes aux 5-fluoropyrimidines. 1. Relation entre les phenotypes de resistance a la 5-fluorocytosine, le serotype de Candida alhicans et l'ecologie de differentes especes de Candida d'origine humaine. Ann. Microbiol. (Paris) 126:25-39.
104. Ellsworth, D. L., K. D. Rittenhouse, and R. L. Honeycutt. 1993. Artifactual variation in randomly amplified polymorphic DNA banding patterns. Bio-Techniques 14:214-217.
105. El-Zaatari, M., L. Pasarell, M. R. McGinnis, J. Buckner, G. A. Land, and I. F. Salkin. 1990. Evaluation of the updated Vitck yeast identification data base. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:1938-1941.
106. Reference deleted.
107. Espinel-Ingroff, A., A. Quart, L. Steele-Moore, I. Metcheva, G. A. Buck, V. L. Bruzzese, and D. Reich. 1996. Molecular karyotyping of multiple yeast species isolated from nine patients with AIDS during prolonged fluconazole therapy. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 34:111-116.
108. Essayag, S. M., G. G. Baily, D. W. Denning, and J. P. Burnie. 1996. Karyotyping of fluconazole-resistant yeasts with phenotype reported as Candida krusei or Candida inconspicua. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 46:35-40.
109. Evans, E. E. 1950. The antigenic composition of Cryptococcus neoformans. I. A serologic classification by means of the capsular and agglutination reactions. J. Immunol. 64:423-430.
110. Faix, R. G., D. J. Finkel, R. D. Andersen, and M. K. Hosteller. 1995. Genotypic analysis of a cluster of systemic Candida albicans infections in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 14:1063-1068.
111. Fan, M., B. P. Currie, R. R. Gutell, M. A. Ragan, and A. Casadevall. 1994. The 16S-like, 5.8S and 28S-like rRNAs of the two varieties of Cyptocuccus neoformans: sequence, secondary structure, phylogenetic analysis and restriction fragment polymorphism. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 32:163-180.
112. Farris, J. S. 1972. Estimating phylogenetic trees from distance matrices. Am. Nat. 106:645-668.
113. Fenn, J. P., H. Segal, B. Barland, D. Denton, J. Whisenant, H. Chun, K. Christofferson, L. Hamilton, and K. Carroll. 1994. Comparison of updated Vitek Yeast Biochemical Card and API 20C yeast identification systems. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:1184-1187.
114. Fitch, W. M., and E. Margoliash. 1967. Construction of phylogenetic trees. Science 155:279-284.
115. Fortun, J., A. Lopez-San Roman, J. J. Velasco, A. Sanchez-Sousa, E. de Vicente, C. Quereda, R. Barcena, G. Monge, A. Candela, A. Honrubia, and A. Guerrero. 1997. Selection of Candida glabrata strains with reduced susceptibility to azoles in four liver transplant patients with invasive candidiasis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16:314-318.
116. Fox, B. C., H. L. Mobley, and J. C. Wade. 1989. The use of a DNA probe for epidemiological studies of candidiasis in immunocompromised hosts. J. Infect. Dis. 159:488-494.
117. Franzot, S. P., J. S. Hamdan, B. P. Currie, and A. Casadevall. 1997. Molecular epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans in Brazil and the United States: evidence for local genetic differences and a global clonal population structure. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:2243-2251.
118. Franzot, S. P., J. Mukherjee, R. Cherniak, L. C. Chen, J. S. Hamdan, and A. Casadevall. 1988. Microevolution of a standard strain of Cryptococcus neoformans resulting in differences in virulence and other phenotypes. Infect. Immun. 66:89-97.
119. Fraser, V. J., E. J. Keath, and W. G. Powderly. 1991. Two cases of blastomycosis from a common source: use of DNA restriction analysis to identify strains. J. Infect. Dis. 163:1378-1381.
120. Fricker-Hidalgo, H., O. Vandapel, M.-A. Duchesne, M. A. Mazoyer, D. Monget, B. Lardy, B. Lebeau, J. Freney, P. Ambroise-Thomas, and R. Grillot. 1996. Comparison of the new API Candida system to the ID 32C system for identification of clinically important yeast species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1846-1848.
121. Fries, B. C., F. Chen, B. P. Currie, and A. Casadevall. 1996. Karyotype instability in Cryptococcus neoformans infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34: 1531-1534.
122. Geiser, D. M., J. L. Pitt, and J. W. Taylor. 1998. Cryptic speciation and recombination in the aflatoxin producing fungi Aspergillus flavus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:388-393.
123. Girardin, H., J.-P. Latge, T. Srikantha, B. Morrow, and D. R. Soll. 1993. Development of DNA probes for fingerprinting Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:1547-1554.
124. Girardin, H., J. Sarfati, F. Traore, J. D. Camel, F. Derouin, and J. P. Latge. 1994. Molecular epidemiology of nosocomial invasive aspergillosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:684-690.
125. Glasgow, A. C., K. T. Hughes, and M. I. Simon. 1989. Bacterial DNA inversion systems, p. 637-660. In D. E. Berg and M. M. Howe (ed.), Mobile DNA. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
126. Glover, D. M. 1983. Genes for ribosomal DNA, p. 207-224. In M. Maclean, S. P. Gregory, and R. A. Flavell (ed.), Eukaryotic genes: their structure and regulation. Butterworth & Co., Cambridge, United Kingdom.
127. Goldman, D., B. Fries, S. Franzot, L. Montella, and A. Casadevall. 1998. Phenotypic switching in the human pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans is associated with changes in virulence and pulmonary inflammatory response in rodents. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:14967-14972.
128. Gottfredsson, M., G. M. Cox, and J. R. Perfect. 1998. Molecular methods for epidemiological and diagnostic studies of fungal infections. Pathology 30:405-418.
129. Gottlieb, S., and S. Esposito. 1989. A new role for a yeast transcriptional silencer gene, SIR 2, in regulation of recombination in ribosomal DNA. Cell 56:771-776.
130. Gräser, Y., M. Volovsek, J. Arrington, G. Schönian, W. Presber, T. G. Mitchell, and R. Vilgalys. 1996. Molecular markers reveal that population structure of the human pathogen Candida albicans exhibits both clonality and recombination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:12473-12477.
131. Gyanchandani, A., Z. K. Khan, N. Farooqui, M. Goswami, and S. A. Ranade. 1998. RAPD analysis of Candida albicans strains recovered from immunocompromised patients (ICP) reveals an apparently non-random infectivity of the strains. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 44:19-27.
132. Hall, L. M. 1994. Are point mutations or DNA rearrangements responsible for the restriction fragment length polymorphisms that are used to type bacteria? Microbiology 140:197-204.
133. Hasenclever, H. F., and W. O. Mitchell. 1961. Antigenic studies of Candida. I. Observations of two antigenic groups in Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol. 82:570-573.
134. Hasenclever, H. F., and W. O. Mitchell. 1961. Antigenic studies of Candida. III. Comparative pathogenicity of Candida albicans group A, group B, and Candida stellatoidea. J. Bacteriol. 82:578-581.
135. Hatlan, L. E., and G. Attardi. 1971. Preparation of the HeLa cell genome complementary to tRNA and 5SRNA. J. Mol. Biol. 56:535-554.
136. Hazen, K. C. 1995. New and emerging yeast pathogens. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 8:462-478.
137. Hellstein, J., H. Vawter-Hugart, P. Fotos, J. Schmid, and D. R. Soll. 1993. Genetic similarity and phenotypic diversity of commensal and pathogenic strains of Candida albicans isolated from the oral cavity. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:3190-3199.
138. Hesselbarth, J., and S. Schwarz. 1995. Comparative ribotyping of Staphylocaccus intermedius from dogs, pigeons, horses and mink. Vet. Microbiol. 45:11-17.
139. Holmberg, K., and F. Feroze. 1995. Comparative study of the GenePath group 4 reagent system and other CHEF systems for karyotype analysis of Candida spp. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 9:184-192.
140. Holmberg, K., and F. Feroze. 1996. Evaluation of an optimized system for random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-analysis for genotypic mapping of Candida albicans strains. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 10:59-69.
141. Howell, S. A., R. M. Anthony, and E. Power. 1996. Application of RAPD and restriction enzyme analysis to the study of oral carriage of Candida albicans. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 22:125-128.
142. Huang, Y. C., T. Y. Lin, H. S. Leu, J. L. Wu, and J. H. Wu. 1998. Yeast carriage on hands of hospital personnel working in intensive care units. J. Hosp. Infect. 39:47-51.
143. Hube, B., M. Monod, D. A. Schofield, A. J. Brown, and N. A. Gow. 1994. Expression of seven members of the gene family encoding secretory aspartyl proteinases in Candida albicans. Mol. Microbiol. 14:87-99.
144. Hunter, P. R., and C. A. Fraser. 1987. Use of modified resistogram to type Candida albicans isolated from cases of vaginitis and from feces in the same geographical area. J. Clin. Pathol. 40:1159-1161.
145. Hunter, P. R., C. A. Fraser, and D. W. Mackenzie. 1989. Morphotype markers of virulence in human candidal infections. J. Med. Microbiol. 28:85-91.
146. Hunter, P. R. 1991. A critical review of typing methods for Candida albicans and their applications. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 17:417-434.
147. Ingram, C. W., H. B. Haywood, V. M. Morris, R. L. Allen, and J. R. Perfect. 1993. Cryptococcal ventricular-peritoneal shunt infection: clinical and epidemiological evaluation of two closely associated cases. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 14:719-722.
148. Iwaguchi, S., M. Homma, and K. Tanaka. 1990. Variation in the electrophoretic karyotype analysed by the assignment of DNA probes in Candida albicans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 136:2433-2442.
149. Iwaguchi, S., M. Homma, and K. Tanaka. 1992. Clonal variation of chromosome size derived from the rDNA cluster region in Candida albicans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 138:1177-1184.
150. Iwaguchi, S.-I., M. Homma, H. Chibana, and K. Tanaka. 1992. Isolation and characterization of a repeated sequence (RPS1) of Candida albicans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 138:1893-1900.
151. Joly, S., C. Pujol, M. Rysz, K. Vargas, and D. R. Soll. 1999. Development and characterization of complex DNA fingerprinting probes for the infectious agent Candida dubliniensis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:1035-1044.
152. Joly, S., C. Pujol, K. Schröppel, and D. R. Soll. 1996. Development and verification of two species fingerprinting probes for Candida tropicalis amenable to computer analysis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:3063-3071.
153. Jordan, J. A. 1994. PCR identification of four medically important Candida species by using a single primer pair. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:2962-2967.
154. Karabinis, A., C. Hill, B. Leclercq, C. Tancrede, D. Baume, and A. Andremont. 1988. Risk factors for candidemia in cancer patients: a case-control study. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:429-432.
155. Karl, S. A., and J. C. Avise. 1993. PCR-based assays of Mendelian polymorphisms from anonymous single-copy nuclear DNA-techniques and applications for population genetics. Mol. Biol. Evol. 10:342-361.
156. Kasuga, T., J. W. Taylor, and T. J. White. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships of varieties and geographical groups of the human pathogenic fungus, Histoplasma capsulatum Darling. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:2165-2168.
157. Kaufmann, C. S., and W. G. Merz. 1989. Electrophoretic karyotypes of Torulopsis glabrata. J. Clin. Microbicl. 27:2165-2168.
158. Keath, E. J., G. S. Kobayashi, and G. Medoff. 1992. Typing of Histoplasma capsulatum by restriction fragment length polymorphisms in a nuclear gene. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:2104-2107.
159. Keath, E. J., A. A. Painter, G. S. Kobayashi, and G. Medoff. 1989. Variable expression of a yeast-phase-specific gene in Histoplasma capsulatum strains differing in thermotolerance and virulence. Infect. Immun. 57:1384-1390.
160. Kersulyte, D., J. P. Woods, E. J. Keath, W. E. Goldman, and D. E. Berg. 1992. Diversity among clinical isolates of Histoplasma capsulatum detected by polymerase chain reaction with arbitrary primers. J. Bacteriol. 174:7075-7079.
161. Khatib, R., M. C. Thirumoorthi, K. M. Riederer, L. Sturm, L. A. Oney, and J. Baran, Jr. 1998. Clustering of Candida infections in the neonatal intensive care unit: concurrent emergence of multiple strains simulating intermittent outbreaks. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:130-134.
162. Khattak, M. N., J. P. Burnie, R. C. Matthews, and B. A. Oppenheim. 1992. Clamped homogeneous electric field gel electrophoresis typing of Torulopsis glabrata isolates causing nosocomial infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 2211-2215.
163. King, D., J. Rhine-Chalberg, M. A. Pfaller, S. A. Moser, and W. G. Merz. 1995. Comparison of four DNA-based methods for strain delineation of Candida lusitaniae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1467-1470.
164. Kleinegger, C., S. T. Lockhart, K. Vargas, and D. R. Soll. 1996. Frequency, intensity, species and strains of oral yeast vary as a function of host age. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:2246-2254.
165. Komshian, S. V., A. K. Uwaydah, J. D. Sobel, and L. R. Crane. 1989. Fungemia caused by Candida species and Torulopsis glabrata in the hospitalized patient: frequency, characteristics, and evaluation of factors influencing outcome. Rev. Infect. Dis. 11:379-390.
166. Korting, H. C., M. Ollert, A. Georgii, and M. Fröschl. 1988. In vitro susceptibilities and biotypes of Candida albicans isolates from the oral cavities of patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:2626-2631.
167. Koufopanou, V., A. Burt, and J. W. Taylor. 1997. Concordance of gene genealogies reveals reproductive isolation in the pathogenic fungus Coccidioides immitis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:5478-5482.
168. Kuehnert, M. J., E. Clark, S. R. Lockhart, D. R. Soll, J. Chia, and W. R. Jarvis. 1998. Candida albicans endocarditis traced to a contaminated aoertic valve allograft: implications for regulation of allograft processing. Clin. Infect. Dis. 27:688-691.
169. Kwon-Chung, K. J., B. L. Wickes, L. Stockman, G. D. Roberts, D. Ellis, and D. H. Howard. 1992. Virulence, serotype, and molecular characteristics of environmental strains of Cryptococcus neoformans var.galtii. Infect. Immun. 60:1869-1874.
170. Kwon-Chung, K. J., W. S. Riggsby, R. A. Uphoff, J. B. Hicks, W. L. Whelan, E. Reiss, B. B. Magee, and B. L. Wickes. 1989. Genetic differences between type I and type II Candida stellatoidea. Infect. Immun. 57:527-532.
171. Kwon-Chung, K. J., B. L. Wickes, and W. G. Merz. 1988. Association of electrophoretic karyotype of Candida stellatoidea with virulence for mice. Infect. Immun. 56:1814-1819.
172. Lacher, D. A., and P. F. Lehmann. 1991. Application of multidimensional scaling in numerical taxonomy: analysis of isoenzyme types of Candida species. Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci. 21:94-103.
173. Lachke, S. A., T. Srikantha, L. K. Tsai, K. Daniels, and D. R. Soll. 2000. Phenotypic switching in Candida glabrata involves phase-specific regulation of the metallothionein gene MT-II and the newly discovered hemolysin gene HLP. Infect. Immun. 68:884-895.
174. Lasker, B. A., G. F. Carle, G. S. Kobayashi, and G. Medoff. 1989. Comparison of the separation of Candida albicans chromosome-sized DNA by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis techniques. Nucleic Acids Res. 17:3783-3793.
175. Lasker, B. A., L. S. Page, T. J. Lott, and G. S. Kobayashi. 1992. Isolation, characterization, and sequencing of Candida albicans repetitive element 2. Gene 116:51-57.
176. Latgé, J.-P. 1999. Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12:310-350.
177. Latouche, G. N., H.-M. Daniel, O. C. Lee, T. G. Mitchell, T. C. Sorrell, and W. Meyer. 1997. Comparison of use of phenotypic and genotypic characteristics for identification of species of the anamorph genus Candida and related teleomorph yeast species. J Clin. Microbiol. 35:3171-3180.
178. Leenders, A., A. van Belkum, S. Janssen, S. de Marie, J. Kluytmans, J. Wielenga, B. Lowenberg, and H. Verbrugh. 1996. Molecular epidemiology of apparent outbreak of invasive aspergillosis in a hematology ward. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:345-351.
179. Le Guennec, R., J. Reynes, M. Mallie, C. Pujol, F. Janbon, and J. M. Bastide. 1995. Fluconazole-and Itraconazole-rcsistant Candida albicans strains from AIDS patients: multilocus enzyme electrophoresis analysis and antifungal susceptibilities. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2732-2737.
180. Lehmann, P. F., B. J. Kemker, C. B. Hsiao, and S. Dev. 1989. Isoenzyme biotypes of Candida species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:2514-2521.
181. Lehmann, P. F., D. Lin, and B. A. Lasker. 1992. Genotypic identification and characterization of species and strains within the genus Candida by using random amplified polymorphic DNA. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:3249-3254.
182. Lehmann, P. F., L. C. Wu, and D. W. Mackenzie. 1991. Isoenzyme changes in Candida albicans during domestication. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:2623-2625.
183. Lehmann, P. F., L. C. Wu, W. R. Pruitt, S. A. Meyer, and D. G. Ahearn. 1993. Unrelatedness of groups of yeasts within the Candida haemulonii complex. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:1683-1687.
184. Levin, A. S., S. F. Costa, N. S. Mussi, M. Basso, S. I. Sinto, C. Machado, D. C. Geiger, M. C. Villares, A. Z. Schreiber, A. A. Barone, and M. L. Branchini. 1998. Candida parapsilosis fungemia associated with implantable and semi-implantable central venous catheters and the hands of healthcare workers. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 30:243-249.
185. Li, W.-H., and D. Grauer. 1991. Fundamentals of molecular evolution. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.
186. Lin, D., P. F. Lehmann, B. H. Hamory, A. A. Padhye, E. Durry, R. W. Pinner, and B. A. Lasker. 1995. Comparison of three typing methods for clinical and environmental isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1596-1601.
187. Lin, D., and P. F. Lehmann. 1995. Random amplified polymorphic DNA for strain delineation within Candida tropicalis. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 33:241-246.
188. Lin, D., L. C. Wu, M. G. Rinaldi, and P. F. Lehmann. 1995. Three distinct genotypes within Candida parapsilosis from clinical sources. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1815-1821.
189. Lipperheide, V., G. Quindós, Y. Jiménez, J. Pontón, J. V. Bagán-Sebastián, and J. M. Auirre. 1996. Candida biotypes in patients with oral leukoplakia and lichen planus. Mycopathologia 134:75-82.
190. Lischewski, A., D. Harmsen, J. Hacker, and J. Morschhauser. 1997. Standardized molecular typing of Candida albicans strains. Mycoses 40:369-372.
191. Lischewski, A., M. Ruhnke, I. Tennagen, G. Schonian, J. Morschhauser, and J. Hacker. 1995. Molecular epidemiology of Candida isolates from AIDS patients showing different fluconazole resistance profiles. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:769-771.
192. Lockhart, S., J. J. Fritch, A. S. Meier, K. Schröppel, T. Srikantha, R. Galask, and D. R. Soll. 1995. Colonizing populations of Candida albicans are clonal in origin but undergo microevolution through C1 fragment reorganization as demonstrated by DNA fingerprinting and C1 sequencing. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1501-1509.
193. Reference deleted.
194. Lockhart, S. R., S. Joly, C. Pujol, J. D. Sobel, M. A. Pfaller, and D. R. Soll. 1997. Development and verification of fingerprinting probes for Candida glabrata. Microbiology 143:3733-3746.
195. Lockhart, S., S. Joly, K. Vargas, J. Swails-Wenger, L. Enger, and D. R. Soll. 1998. Natural defenses against Candida colonization break down in the oral cavity of the elderly. J. Dent. Res. 78:857-868.
196. Lockhart, S. R., B. D. Reed, C. L. Pierson, and D. R. Soll. 1996. Most frequent scenario for recurrent Candida vaginitis is strain maintenance with "substrain shuffling": demonstration by sequential DNA fingerprinting with probes Ca3, C1, and CARE2. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:767-777.
197. Lo Passo, C., I. Pernice, M. Gallo, C. Barbara, F. T. Luck, G. Criseo, and A. Pernice. 1997. Genetic relatedness and diversity of Cryptococcus neoformans strains in the Maltese Islands. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:751-755.
198. Lott, T. J., P. Boiron, and E. Reiss. 1987. An electrophoretic karyotype for Candida albicans reveals large chromosomes in multiples. Mol. Gen. Genet. 209:170-174.
199. Lott, T. J., R. J. Keykendall, S. F. Welbel, A. Pramanik, and B. A. Lasker. 1993. Genomic heterogeneity in the yeast Candida parapsilosis. Curr. Genet. 23:463-467.
200. Loudon, K. W., J. P. Burnie, A. P. Coke, and R. C. Matthews. 1993. Application of polymerase chain reaction to fingerprinting Aspergillus fumigatus by random amplification of polymorphic DNA. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:1117-1121.
201. Loudon, K. W., A. P. Coke, and J. P. Burnie. 1995. "Pseudoclusters" and typing by random amplification of polymorphic DNA of Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Clin. Pathol. 48:183-184.
202. Loudon, K. W., A. P. Coke, J. P. Burnie, G. S. Lucas, and J. A. Liu Yin. 1994. Invasive aspergillosis: clusters and sources? J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 32:217-224.
203. Loudon, K. W., A. P. Coke, J. P. Burnie, A. J. Shaw, B. A. Oppenheim, and C. Q. Morris. 1996. Kitchens as a source of Aspergillus niger infection. J. Hosp. Infect. 32:191-198.
204. Lupetti, A., G. Guzzi, A. Paladini, K. Swart, M. Campa, and S. Senesi. 1995. Molecular typing of Candida albicans in oral candidiasis: karyotype epidemiology with human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive patients in comparison with that with healthy carriers. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1238-1342.
205. Maffei, C. M., C. R. Paula, T. S. Mazzocato, and S. Franceschini. 1997. Phenotype and genotype of Candida albicans strains isolated from pregnant women with recurrent vaginitis. Mycopathologia 137:87-94.
206. Magee, B. B., T. M. D'Souza, and P. T. Magee. 1987. Strain and species identification by restriction length polymorphisms in the ribosomal DNA repeat of Candida species. J. Bacteriol. 169:1639-1643.
207. Magee, B. B., and P. T. Magee. 1987. Electrophoretic karyotypes and chromosome numbers in Candida species. J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:425-430.
208. Magee, P. T., L. Bowdin, and J. Staudinger. 1992. Comparison of molecular typing methods for Candida albicans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:2674-2679.
209. Mahrous, M., T. J. Lott, S. A. Meyer, A. D. Sawant, and D. G. Ahearn. 1990. Electrophoretic karyotyping of typical and atypical Candida albicans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:876-881.
210. Maiwald, M., R. Kappe, and H. G. Sonntag. 1994. Rapid presumptive identification of medically relevant yeasts to the species level by polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme analysis. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 32:115-122.
211. Marco, F., S. Lockhart, M. Pfaller, and D. R. Soll. 1998. Elucidating the origins of nosocomial infections of C. albicans by DNA fingerprinting with the probe Ca3. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:2817-2828.
212. Marichal, P., B. H. Vanden, F. C. Odds, G. Nobels, D. W. Warnock, V. Timmerman, et al. 1997. Molecular biological characterization of an azole-resistant Candida glabrata isolate. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:2229-2237.
213. Mason, M. M., B. A. Lasker, and W. S. Riggsby. 1987. Molecular probe for identification of medically important Candida species and Torulopsis glabrata. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25:563-566.
214. McAlpin, C. E., and B. Mannarelli. 1995. Construction and characterization of a DNA probe for distinguishing strains of Aspergillus flavus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:1068-1072.
215. McCreight, M. C., D. W. Warnock, and M. V. Martin. 1985. Resistogram typing of Candida albicans isolates from oral and cutaneous sites in irradiated patients. Sabouraudia 23:403-406.
216. McCullough, M. J., B. C. Ross, B. D. Dwyer, and P. C. Reade. 1994. Genotype and phenotype of oral Candida albicans from patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Microbiology 140:1195-1202.
217. Mercure, S., S. Montplaisir, and G. Lemay. 1993. Correlation between the presence of a self-splicing intron in the 25S rDNA of C. albicans and strain susceptibility to 5-fluorocytosine. Nucleic Acids Res. 21:6020-6027.
218. Mercure, S., S. Poirier, G. Lemay, P. Auger, S. Montplaisir, and L. de Repentigny. 1993. Application of biotyping and DNA typing of Candida albicans to the epidemiology of recurrent vulvovaginal candidasis. J. Infect. Dis. 168:502-507.
219. Merz, W. G., C. Connelly, and P. Hieter. 1988. Variation of electrophoretic karyotypes among clinical isolates of Candida albicans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:842-845.
220. Merz, W. G., U. Khazan, M. A. Jabra-Rizk, L. C. Wu, G. J. Osterhout, and P. F. Lehmann. 1992. Strain delineation and epidemiology of Candida (Clavispora) lusitaniae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:449-454.
221. Metzgar, D., A. van Belkum, D. Field, R. Haubrich, and C. Wills. 1998. Random amplification of polymorphic DNA and microsatellite genotyping of pre-and posttreatment isolates of Candida spp. from human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients on different fluconazole regimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:2308-2313.
222. Meunier, J.-R., and P. A. Grimont. 1993. Factors affecting reproducibility of random amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprinting. Res. Microbiol. 144: 373-379.
223. Meyer, W., E. Lieckfeldt, K. Kuhls, E. Z. Freedman, T. Borner, and T. G. Mitchell. 1993. DNA-and PCR-fingerprinting in fungi. Exs 67:311-320.
224. Meyer, W., and T. Mitchell. 1995. Polymerase chain reaction fingerprinting in fungi using single primers specific to minisatellites and simple repetitive DNA sequences: strain variation in Cryptococcus neoformans. Electrophoresis 16:1648-1656.
225. Meyer, W., T. G. Mitchell, E. Z. Freedman, and R. Vilgalys. 1993. Hybridization probes for conventional DNA fingerprinting used as single primers in the polymerase chain reaction to distinguish strains of Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:2274-2280.
226. Millon, L., A. Manteaux, G. Reboux, C. Drobacheff, M. Monod, T. Barale, and Y. Michel-Briand. 1994. Fluconazole-resistant recurrent oral candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients: persistence of Candida albicans strains with the same genotype. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:1115-1118.
227. Miyakawa, Y., K. Kagaya, T. Kuribayashi, M. Suzuki, and Y. Fukazawa. 1989. Isolation and chemical and biological characterization of antigenic mutants of Candida albicans serotype A. Yeast 5:S225-S229.
228. Miyasaki, S. H., J. B. Hicks, D. Greenspan, I. Polachek, L. A. MacPhail, T. C. White, N. Agabian, and J. S. Greenspan. 1992. The identification and tracking of Candida albicans isolates from oral lesions in HIV-seropositive individuals. J. Acquired Immune Defic. Syndr. 5:1039-1046.
229. Mondon, P., J. Thelu, B. Lebeau, P. Ambroise-Thomas, and R. Grillot. 1995. Virulence of Aspergillus fumigatus strains investigated by random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis. J. Med. Microbiol. 42:299-303.
230. Monod, M., S. Porchet, F. Baudraz-Rosselet, and E. Frenk. 1990. The identification of pathogenic yeast strains by electrophoretic analysis of their chromosomes. J. Med. Microbiol. 32:123-129.
231. Moody, S. F., and B. M. Tyler. 1990. Use of nuclear DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms to analyze the diversity of the Aspergillus flavus group: A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:2453-2461.
232. Moran, G. P., D. J. Sullivan, M. C. Henman, C. E. McCreary, B. J. Harrington, D. B. Shanley, and D. C. Coleman. 1997. Antifungal drug susceptibilities of oral Candida dubliniensis isolates from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and non-HIV-infected subjects and generation of stable fluconazole-resistant derivatives in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:617-623.
233. Morrow, B., T. Srikantha, J. Anderson, and D. R. Soll. 1993. Coordinate regulation of two opaque-phase-specific genes during white-opaque switching in Candida albicans. Infect. Immun. 61:1823-1828.
234. Morrow, B., T. Srikantha, and D. R. Soll. 1992. Transcription of the gene for a pepsinogen, PEP1, is regulated by white-opaque switching in Candida albicans. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12:2997-3005.
235. Nebavi, F., S. Arnavielhe, R. Le Guennec, E. Menan, A. Kacou, P. Combe, E. Aoussi, M. Mallie, M. Kone, and J. M. Bastide. 1998. Oropharyngeal candidiasis in AIDS patients from Abidjan (Ivory Coast): antifungal susceptibilities and multilocus enzyme electrophoresis analysis of Candida albicans isolates. Pathol. Biol. 46:307-314.
236. Neely, A. N., F. C. Odds, B. K. Basatia, and I. A. Holder. 1988. Characterization of Candida isolates from pediatric burn patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:1645-1649.
237. Nguyen, M., J. Peacock, A. Morris, D. Tanner, M. Nguyen, D. R. Snydman, M. Wagener, M. Rinaldi, and V. Yu. 1996. The changing face of candidemia: emergence of non-Candida albicans species and antifungal resistance. Am. J. Med. 100:617-623.
238. Nomura, M., and E. A. Morgan. 1977. Genetics of bacterial ribosomes. Annu. Rev. Genet. 11:297-347.
239. Odds, F. C. 1993. Resistance of yeasts to azole-derivativc antifungals. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 31:463-471.
240. Odds, F. C. 1997. Switch of phenotype as an escape mechanism of the intruder. Mycoses 2:9-12.
241. Odds, F. C., and A. B. Abbott. 1980. A simple system for the presumptive identification of Candida albicans and differentiation of strains within the species. Sabouraudia 18:301-317.
242. Odds, F. C., and A. B. Abbott. 1983. Modification and extension of tests for differentiation of Candida species and strains. Sabouraudia 21:79-81.
243. Odds, F. C., P. Auger, P. Krogh, A. N. Neely, and E. Segal. 1989. Biotyping of Candida albicans: results of an international collaborative survey. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:1506-1509.
244. Odds, F. C., and R. Bernaerts. 1994. CHROMagar Candida, a new differential isolation medium for presumptive identification of clinically important Candida species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:1923-1929.
245. Odds, F. C., A. Palacio-Hernanz, J. Cuadra, and J. Sanchéz. 1987. Disseminated Candida infection syndrome in heroin addicts - dominance of a single Candida albicans biotype. J. Med. Microbiol. 23:275-277.
246. Odds, F. C., C. C. Kibbler, E. Walker, A. Bhamra, H. G. Prentice, and P. Noone. 1989. Carriage of Candida species and C. albicans biotypes in patients undergoing chemotherapy or bone marrow transplantation for haematological disease. J. Clin. Pathol. 42:1259-1266.
247. Odds, F. C., J. Schmid, and D. R. Soll. 1990. Epidemiology of Candida infections in AIDS, p. 67-74. In Proceedings of the Third Symposium of Topics in Mycology on Mycoses in AIDS Patients. Plenum Press, New York, N.Y.
248. Odds, F. C., C. E. Webster, P. G. Fisk, V. C. Riley, P. Mayuranathan, and P. D. Simmons. 1989. Candida species and C. albicans biotypes in women attending clinics in genitourinary medicine. J. Med. Microbiol. 29:51-54.
249. Odds, F. C., C. E. Webster, V. C. Riley, and P. G. Fisk. 1987. Epidemiology of vaginal Candida infection: significance of numbers of vaginal yeast and their biotypes. Eur. J. Obst. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 25:53-66.
250. Olive, D. M., and P. Bean. 1999. Principles and applications of methods for DNA-based typing of microbial organisms. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:1661-1669.
251. Olivo, P. D., E. J. McManus, W. S. Riggsby, and J. M. Jones. 1987. Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in Candida albicans. J. Infect. Dis. 156:214-215.
252. Orita, M., Y. Suzuki, T. Sekiya, and K. Hayashi. 1989. Rapid and sensitive detection of point mutations and DNA polymorphisms using the polymerase chain reaction. Genomics 5:874-879.
253. Pan, S., and G. T. Cole. 1992. Electrophoretic karyotypes of clinical isolates of Coccidioides immitis. Infect. Immun. 60:4872-4880.
254. Pan, S., L. Sigler, and G. T. Cole. 1994. Evidence for a phylogenetic connection between Coccidioidies immitis and Uncinocarpus reesii (Onygenaceae). Microbiology 140:1481-1494.
255. Passoth, V., M. Hansen, U. Klinner, and C. C. Emeis. 1992. The electrophoretic banding pattern of the chromosomes of Pichia stipitis and Candida shehatae. Curr. Genet. 22:429-431.
256. Perfect, J. R., N. Ketabchi, G. M. Cox, C. W. Ingram, and C. L. Beiser. 1993. Karyotyping of Cryptococcus neoformans as an epidemiological tool. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:3305-3309.
257. Perfect, J. R., B. B. Magee, and P. T. Magee. 1989. Separation of chromosomes of Cryptococcus neoformans by pulsed field gel electrophoresis. Infect. Immun. 57:2624-2627.
258. Perrot, M. O., R. Grilloot, and P. Ambroise-Thomas. 1977. Repartition dans l'organisme et sensibilite a la 5-fluorocytosine des deux serotypes de Candida albicans etude de 680 souches. Bull. Soc. Fr. Mycol. Med. 6:305-309.
259. Pfaller, M., J. Rex, and M. Rinaldi. 1997. Antifungal susceptibility testing: technical advances and potential clinical applications. Clin. Infect. Dis. 24:776-784.
260. Pfaller, M. A. 1995. Epidemiology of candiasis. Comp. Ther. 21:653-657.
261. Pfaller, M. A. 1996. Nosocomial carididiasis: emerging species, reservoirs, and modes of transmission. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22:S89-S94.
262. Pfaller, M. A., I. Cabezudo, R. Hollis, B. Huston, and R. P. Wenzel. 1990. The use of biotyping and DNA fingerprinting in typing Candida albicans from hospitalized patients. Diag. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 13:481-489.
263. Pfaller, M. A., A. Houston, and S. Coffmann. 1996. Application of CHROMagar Candida for rapid screening of clinical specimens for Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and Candida (Torulopsis) glabrata. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:58-61.
264. Pfaller, M. A., R. N. Jones, G. V. Doern, H. S. Sader, R. J. Hollis, and S. A. Messer. 1998. International surveillance of bloodstream infections due to Candida species: frequency of occurrence and antitungal susceptibility of isolates collected in 1997 in the United States, Canada and South America for the SENTRY Program. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:1886-1889.
265. Pfaller, M. A., S. R. Lockhart, C. Pujol, J. A. Swails-Wenger, S. A. Messer, M. B. Edmund, R. N. Jones, R. P. Wenzel, and D. R. Soll. 1998. Hospital specificity, region specificity and fluconazole-resistance of Candida albicans blood stream isolates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:1518-1529.
266. Pfaller, M. A., S. A. Messer, and R. J. Hollis. 1994. Strain delineation and antifungal susceptibilities of epidemiologically related and unrelated isolates of Candida lusitaniae. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 20:127-133.
267. Pfaller, M. A., S. A. Messer, and R. J. Hollis. 1995. Variations in DNA subtype, antifungal susceptibility, and slime production among clinical isolates of Candida parapsilosis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21:9-14.
268. Pfaller, M. A., S. A. Messer, A. Houston, M. S. Rangel-Frausto, T. Wiblin, H. M. Blumberg, J. E. Edwards, W. Jarvis, M. A. Martin, H. C. Neu, L. Saiman, J. E. Patterson, J. C. Dibb, C. M. Roldan, M. G. Rinaldi, and R. P. Wenzel. 1998. National epidemiology of mycoses survey: a multicenter study of strain variation and antifungal susceptibility among isolates of Candida species. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 31:289-296.
269. Pfaller, M. A., J. Rhine-Chalberg, S. W. Redding, J. Smith, G. Farinacci, A. W. Fothergill, and M. G. Rinaldi. 1994. Variations in fluconazole susceptibility and electrophoretic karyotype among oral isolates of Candida albicans from patients with AIDS and oral candidiasis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:59-64.
270. Phongpaichit, S., D. W. Mackenzie, and C. Fraser. 1987. Strain differentiation of Candida albicans by morphotyping. Epidemiol. Infect. 99:421-428.
271. Pierson, D. L., S. K. Mehta, B. B. Magee, and S. K. Mishra. 1995. Person-to-person transfer of Candida albicans in the spacecraft environment. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 33:145-150.
272. Pineda-Garcia, L., A. Ferrera, C. A. Galvez, and S. E. Hoffner. 1997. Drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis and atypical mycobacteria isolated from patients with suspected pulmonary tuberculosis in Honduras. Chest 111:148-153.
273. Pineda-Garcia, L., A. Ferrera, and S. E. Hoffner. 1997. DNA fingerprinting of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains from patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Honduras. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:2393-2397.
274. Pittet, D., M. Monod, I. Filthuth, E. Frenk, P. M. Suter, and R. Aukenthaler. 1991. Contour-clamped homogeneous electric field gel electrophoresis as a powerful epidemiological tool in yeast infections. Am. J. Med. 91:256S-263S.
275. Pittet, D., M. Monod, P. M. Suter, E. Frenk, and R. Auckenthaler. 1994. Candida colonization and subsequent infections in critically ill surgical patients. Ann. Surg. 220:751-758.
276. Poirier, S., P. Auger, J. Joly, and M. Steben. 1990. Interest of biotyping Candida albicans in chronic vulvovaginitis. Mycoses 33:24-28.
277. Polacheck, I., and G. A. Lebens. 1989. Electrophoretic karyotype of the pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 135:65-71.
278. Polonelli, L., C. Archibusacci, M. Sestito, and G. Morace. 1983. Killer system: a simple method for differentiating Candida albicans strains. J. Clin. Microbiol. 17:774-780.
279. Polonelli, L., C. Castoanola, D. V. Rossetti, and G. Morace. 1985. Use of killer toxins for computer-aided differentiation of Candida albicans strains. Mycopathologia 91:175-179.
280. Pomes, R., C. Gil, and C. Nombela. 1985. Genetic analysis of Candida albicans morphological mutants. J. Gen. Microbiol. 131:2107-2113.
281. Pontieri, E., L. Gregori, M. Gennarelli, T. Ceddia, G. Novelli, B. Dallapiccola, F. De Bernardis, and G. Carruba. 1996. Correlation of Sfil macrorestriction endonuclease fingerprint analysis of Candida parapsilosis isolates with source of isolation. J. Med. Microbiol. 45:173-178.
282. Poonwan, N., Y. Mikami, S. Poosuwan, L. J. Boon, N. Mekha, M. Kusum, K. Yazawa, R. Tanaka, K. Nishimura, and K. Konyama. 1997. Serotyping of Cryptococcus neoformans strains isolated from clinical specimens in Thailand and their susceptibility to various antifungal agents. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 13:335-340.
283. Poulain, D., V. Hopwood, and A. Vernes. 1985. Antigenic variability of Candida albicans. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 12:223-270.
284. Powderly, W. G. 1992. Mucosal candidiasis caused by non-albicans species of Candida in HIV-positive patients. AIDS 6:604-605.
285. Price, M. F., M. T. LaRocco, and L. O. Gentry. 1994. Fluconazole susceptibilities of Candida species and distribution of species recovered from blood cultures over a 5-year period. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38: 1422-1427.
286. Priest, F. G., D. A. Kaji, Y. B. Rosato, and V. P. Canhos. 1994. Characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis and related bacteria by ribosomal RNA gene restriction fragment length polymorphisms. Microbiology 140:1015-1022.
287. Reference deleted.
288. Pujol, C., S. Joly, S. Lockhart, S. Noel, M. Tibayrenc, and D. R. Soll. 1997. Parity of MLEE, RAPD and Ca3 hybridization as fingerprinting methods for Candida albicans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:2348-2358.
289. Pujol, C., S. Joly, B. Nolan, T. Srikantha, S. Lockhart, and D. R. Soll. 1999. Microevolutionary changes in Candida albicans identified by the complex Ca3 probe involve insertions and deletions of RPS units at specific genomic sites. Microbiology 145:2635-2646.
290. Pujol, C., F. Renaud, M. Mallie, T. de Meeus, and J. M. Bastide. 1997. Atypical strains of Candida albicans recovered from AIDS patients. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 35:115-121.
291. Pujol, C., J. Reynes, F. Renaud, M. Mallie, and J. M. Bastide. 1993. Genetic analysis of Candida albicans strains studied by isoenzyme electrophoresis. J. Mycol. Med. 3:14-19.
292. Pujol, C., J. Reynes, F. Renaud, M. Raymond, M. Tibayrenc, F. J. Ayala, F. Jambon, M. Mallie, and J.-M. Bastide. 1993. The yeast Candida albicans has a clonal mode of reproduction in a population of infected human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 9456-9459.
293. Quindós, G., M. Fernández-Rodríguez, A. Burgos, M. Tellaetxe, R. Cisterna, and J. Ponton. 1992. Colony morphotype on Sabouraud-triphenyltetrazolium agar: a simple and inexpensive method for Candida subspecies discrimination. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:2748-2752.
294. Quindós, G., V. Lipperheide, B. Barturen, R. Alonso, J. Bikandi, S. San Millán, M. Tellaetxe, L. Ribacoba, and J. Pontón. 1996. A new method of antibiotyping yeasts for subspecies discrimination and distribution in human clinical specimens. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 12:55-62.
295. Ramsey, H., B. Morrow, and D. R. Soll. 1994. An increase in switching frequency correlates with an increase in recombination of the ribosomal chromosomes of Candida albicans strain 3153A. Microbiology 140:1525-1531.
296. Rath, P. M., G. Marggraf, H. Dermoumi, and R. Ansorg. 1995. Use of phenotypic and genotypic fingerprinting methods in the strain identification of Aspergillus fumigatus. Mycoses 38:429-434.
297. Reagan, D. R., M. A. Pfaller, R. J. Hollis, and R. P. Wenzel. 1995. Evidence of nosocomial spread of Candida albicans causing bloodstream infection in a neonatal intensive care unit. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21:191-194.
298. Redkar, R. J., M. P. Dubé, F. K. McCluskey, M. G. Rinaldi, and V. G. Del Vecchio. 1996. DNA fingerprinting of Candida rugosa via repetitive sequence-based PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1677-1681.
299. Reef, S. E., B. A. Lasker, D. S. Butcher, M. M. McNeil, R. Pruitt, H. Keyserling, and W. R. Jarvis. 1998. Nonperinatal nosocomial transmission of Candida albicans in a neonatal intensive care unit: prospective study. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:1255-1259.
300. Rex, J., M. Rinaldi, and M. Pfaller. 1995. Resistance of Candida species to fluconazole. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:1-8.
301. Reynes, J., C. Pujol, C. Moreau, M. Mallie, F. Renaud, F. Janbon, and J. M. Bastide. 1996. Simultaneous carriage of Candida albicans strains from HIV-infected patients with oral candidiasis: multilocus enzyme electrophoresis analysis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 137:269-273.
302. Richet, H. M., A. Andremont, C. Tancrede, J. L. Pico, and W. R. Jarvis. 1991. Risk factors for candidemia in patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia. Rev. Infect. Dis. 13:211-215.
303. Rieseberg, L. H. 1996. Homology among RAPD fragments in interspecific comparisons. Mol. Ecol. 5:99-105.
304. Riggsby, W. S., L. J. Torres-Bauzá, J. W. Wills, and T. M. Tomes. 1982. DNA content, kinetic complexity and the ploidy question in Candida albicans. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2:853-862.
305. Rikkerink, E. H., B. B. Magee, and P. T. Magee. 1988. Opaque-white phenotype transition: a programmed morphological transition in Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol. 170:895-899.
306. Robert, F., F. Lebreton, M. E. Bougnoux, A. Paugam, D. Wassermann, M. Schlotterer, C. Tourte-Schaefer, and J. Dupouy-Camet. 1995. Use of random amplified polymorphic DNA as a typing method for Candida albicans in epidemiological surveillance of a burn unit. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2366-2371.
307. Rodriguez, E., T. De Meeus, M. Mallie, F. Renaud, F. Symoens, P. Mondon, M. A. Piens, B. Lebeau, M. A. Viviani, R. Grillot, N. Nolard, F. Chapuis, A. M. Tortorano, and J. M. Bastide. 1996. Multicentric epidemiological study of Aspergillus fumigatus isolated by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:2559-2568.
308. Rohlf, F. J. 1963. Classification of Aedes by numerical taxonomic methods (Diptera: Culcidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 56:798-804.
309. Ruhnke, M., I. Grosch-Worner, A. Steinmuller, and A. Neubauer. 1997. Molecular epidemiology of Candida infections in HIV-infected mothers and their offspring. Wien. Med. Wochenschr. 147:446-449. (In German.)
310. Ruiz-Diez, B., V. Martinez, M. Alvarez, J. L. Rodriguez-Tudela, and J. V. Martinez-Saurez. 1997. Molecular tracking of Candida albicans in a neonatal intensive care unit: long term colonizations versus catheter-related infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:3032-3036.
311. Ruma, P., S. C. Chen, T. C. Sorrell, and A. G. Brownlee. 1996. Characterization of Cryptococcus neoformans by random DNA amplification. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 23:312-316.
312. Rustchenko-Bulgac, E. P. 1991. Variations of Candida albicans electrophoretic karyotypes. J. Bacteriol. 173:6586-6596.
313. Rustchenko-Bulgac, E. P., and D. H. Howard. 1993. Multiple chromosomal and phenotypic changes in spontaneous mutants of Candida albicans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:1195-1207.
314. Rustchenko-Bulgac, E. P., F. Sherman, and J. B. Hicks. 1990. Chromosomal rearrangements associated with morphological mutants provide a means for genetic variation in Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol. 172:1276-1283.
315. Sadhu, C., M. J. McEachern, E. P. Rustchenko-Bulgac, J. Schmid, D. R. Soll, and J. B. Hicks. 1991. Telomeric and dispersed repeat sequences in Candida yeasts and their use in strain identification. J. Bacteriol. 173:842-850.
316. Safrin, R. E., L. A. Lancaster, C. E. Davis, and A. I. Braude. 1986. Differentiation of Cryptococcus neoformans serotypes by isoenzyme electrophoresis. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 86:204-208.
317. Saitou, N., and M. Nei. 1987. The neighbor-joining method: a new method for constructing phylogenetic trees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4:406-425.
318. Sambrook, J., E. F. Fritsch, and T. Maniatis. 1989. Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual, 2nd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
319. Sanchez, V., J. A. Vazquez, D. Barth-Jones, L. Dembry, J. D. Sobel, and M. J. Zervos. 1992. Epidemiology of nosocomial acquisition of Candida lusitaniae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:3005-3008.
320. Sandhu, G. S., B. C. Kline, L. Stockman, and G. D. Roberts. 1995. Molecular probes for diagnosis of fungal infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2913-2919.
321. Sandven, P., A. Bjorneklett, and A. Maeland. 1993. Susceptibilities of Norwegian Candida albicans strains to fluconazole: emergence of resistance. The Norwegian Yeast Study Group. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37: 2443-2448.
322. Sangeorzan, J. A., S. F. Bradley, X. He, L. T. Zarins, G. L. Ridenour, R. N. Tiballi, and C. A. Kauffman. 1994. Epidemiology of oral candidiasis in HIV-infected patients: colonization, infection, treatment, and emergence of fluconazole resistance. Am. J. Med. 97:339-346.
323. Sangeorzan, J. A., M. J. Zervos, S. Donabedian, and C. A. Kauffman. 1995. Validity of contour-clamped homogeneous electric field electrophoresis as a typing system for Candida albicans. Mycoses 38:29-36.
324. San-Millan, R., L. Ribacoba, J. Ponton, and G. Quindos. 1996. Evaluation of a commercial medium for identification of Candida species. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 15:153-158.
325. San Millan, R. M., L. C. Wu, I. F. Salkin, and P. F. Lehmann. 1997. Clinical isolates of Candida guilliermondii include Candida fermentati. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47:385-393.
326. Scherer, S., and D. A. Stevens. 1987. Application of DNA typing methods to epidemiology and taxonomy of Candida species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25:675-679.
327. Scherer, S., and D. A. Stevens. 1988. A Candida albicans dispersed, repeated gene family and its epidemiological applications. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:1452-1456.
328. Schmid, J., P. R. Hunter, G. C. White, A. K. Nand, and R. D. Cannon. 1995. Physiological traits associated with success of Candida albicans strains as commensal colonizers and pathogens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2920-2926.
329. Schmid, J., F. C. Odds, M. J. Wiselka, K. G. Nicholson, and D. R. Soll. 1992. Genetic similarity and maintenance of Candida albicans strains in a group of AIDS patients demonstrated by DNA fingerprinting. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:935-941.
330. Schmid, J., M. Rotman, B. Reed, C. L. Pierson, and D. R. Soll. 1993. Genetic similarity of Candida albicans strains from vaginitis patients and their partners. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:39-46.
331. Schmid, J., Y. P. Tay, L. Wan, M. Carr, D. Parr, and W. McKinney. 1995. Evidence for nosocomial transmission of Candida albicans obtained by Ca3 fingerprinting. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:1223-1230.
332. Schmid, J., E. Voss, and D. R. Soll. 1990. Computer-assisted methods for assessing strain relatedness in Candida albicans by fingerprinting with the moderately repetitive sequence Ca3. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:1236-1243.
333. Schonian, G., O. Meusel, H. J. Tietz, W. Meyer, Y. Graser, I. Tausch, W. Presber, and T. G. Mitchell. 1993. Identification of clinical strains of Candida albicans by DNA fingerprinting with the polymerase chain reaction. Mycoses 36:171-179.
334. Schoofs, A., F. C. Odds, R. Colebunders, M. Ieven, and H. Goossens. 1997. Use of specialized isolation media for recognition and identification of Candida dubliniensis isolates from HIV-infected patients. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16:296-300.
335. Schoofs, A., F. C. Odds, R. Colebunders, M. Ieven, L. Wouters, and H. Goossens. 1997. Isolation of Candida species on media with and without added fluconazole reveals high variability in relative growth susceptibility phenotypes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:1625-1635.
336. Schröppel, K., M. Rotman, R. Galask, K. Mac, and D. R. Soll. 1994. Evolution and replacement of C. albicans strains during recurrent vaginitis demonstrated by DNA fingerprinting. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:2646-2654.
337. Schwab, U., F. Chernomas, L. Larcom, and J. Weems. 1997. Molecular typing and fluconazole susceptibility of urinary Candida glabrata isolates from hospitalized patients. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29:11-17.
338. Schwartz, D. C., and C. R. Cantor. 1984. Separation of yeast chromosomesized DNAs by pulsed field gradient gel electrophoresis. Cell 37:67-75.
339. Schweizer, E., C. MacKechnie, and H. D. Halvorson. 1969. The redundancy of ribosomal and transfer RNA genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Mol. Biol. 40:261-278.
340. Seward, R. J., B. Ehrenstein, H. J. Grundmann, and K. J. Towner. 1997. Direct comparison of two commercially available computer programs for analysing DNA fingerprinting gels. J. Med. Microbiol. 46:314-320.
341. Shibata, N., M. Arai, E. Haga, T. Kikuchi, M. Najima, T. Satoh, H. Kobayashi, and S. Suzuki. 1992. Structural identification of an epitope of antigenie factor 5 in mannans of Candida albicans NIH B-792 (serotype B) and J-1012 (serotype A) as beta-1,2-linked oligomannosyl residues. Infect. Immun. 60:4100-4110.
342. Skorepová, M., and H. Hauck. 1985. Differentiation of Candida albicans biotypes by the method of Odds and Abbott. Mykosen 28:323-331.
343. Slutsky, B. 1986. A characterization of two high frequency switching systems in the dimorphic yeast Candida albicans. Ph.D. thesis. University of Iowa, Iowa City.
344. Slutsky, B., J. Buffo, and D. R. Soll. 1985. High frequency "switching" of colony morphology in Candida albicans. Science 230:666-669.
345. Slutsky, B., M. Staebell, J. Anderson, L. Risen, M. Pfaller, and D. R. Soll. 1987. "White-opaque transition": a second high-frequency switching system in Candida albicans. 3. Bacteriol. 169:189-197.
346. Smith, R. A., C. A. Hitchcock, E. G. Evans, C. J. Lacey, and D. J. Adams. 1989. The identification of Candida albicans strains by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of DNA. J. Med. Vet. Micol. 27:431-434.
347. Sneath, P. H. A. 1957. Some thoughts on bacterial classification. J. Gen. Microbiol. 17:184-200.
348. Sneath, P. H. A., and R. R. Sokal. 1973. Numerical taxonomy. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, Calif.
349. Snell, R. G., and R. J. Wilkins. 1986. Separation of chromosomal DNA molecules from C. albicans by pulsed field gel electrophoresis. Nucleic Acids Res. 14:4401-4406.
350. Soll, D. R. 1990. Dimorphism and high frequency switching in Candida albicans, p. 147-176. In D. R. Kirsch, R. Kelly, and M. B. Kurtz (ed.), The genetics of Candida. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.
351. Soll, D. R. 1992. High-frequency switching in Candida albicans. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 5:183-203.
352. Soll, D. R. 1992. Molecular biology of Candida pathogenesis, p. 131-172. In D. M. M. Wright and L. C. Archard (ed.), Molecular biology of sexually transmitted diseases. Chapman & Hall, London, United Kingdom.
353. Soll, D. R. 1997. The emerging molecular biology of switching in Candida albicans. ASM News 62:415-420.
354. Soll, D. R. 1997. Gene regulation during high frequency switching in Candida albicans. Microbiology 143:279-288.
355. Reference deleted.
356. Soll, D. R., J. Anderson, and M. Bergen. 1991. The developmental biology of the white-opaque transition in Candida albicans, p. 20-45. In R. Prasad (ed.), The molecular biology of Candida albicans. Springer-Verlag KG, Berlin, Germany.
357. Soll, D. R., R. Galask, S. Isley, T. V. G. Rao, D. Stone, J. Hicks, J. Schmid, K. Mac, and C. Hanna. 1989. "Switching" of Candida albicans during successive episodes of recurrent vaginitis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:681-690.
358. Soll, D. R., R. Galask, J. Schmid, C. Hanna, K. Mac, and B. Morrow. 1991. Genetic dissimilarity of commensal strains of Candida spp. carried in different anatomical locations of the same healthy women. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:1702-1710.
359. Soll, D. R., C. J. Langtimm, J. McDowell, J. Hicks, and R. Galask. 1987. High-frequency switching in Candida strains isolated from vaginitis patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25:1611-1622.
360. Soll, D. R., M. Staebell, C. J. Langtimm, M. Pfaller, J. Hicks, and T. V. G. Rao. 1988. Multiple Candida strains in the course of a single systemic infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:1448-1459.
361. Sorrell, T. C., A. G. Brownlee, P. Ruma, R. Malik, T. J. Pfeiffer, and D. H. Ellis. 1996. Natural environmental sources of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1261-1263.
362. Sorrell, T. C., S. C. Chen, P. Ruma, W. Meyer, T. J. Pfeiffer, D. H. Ellis, and A. G. Brownlee. 1996. Concordance of clinical and environmental isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii by random amplification of polymorphic DNA analysis and PCR fingerprinting. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1253-1260.
363. Spitzer, E. D., B. A. Lasker, S. J. Travis, G. S. Kobayashi, and G. Medoff. 1989. Use of mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA polymorphisms to classify clinical and soil isolates of Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect. Immun. 57: 1409-1412.
364. Spitzer, E. D., and S. G. Spitzer. 1992. Use of a dispersed repetitive DNA element to distinguish clinical isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:1094-1097.
365. Spitzer, E. D., S. G. Spitzer, L. F. Freundlich, and A. Casadevall. 1993. Persistence of initial infection in recurrent Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis. Lancet 341:595-596.
366. Spreadbury, C. L., B. W. Bainbridge, and J. Cohen. 1990. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms in isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus probed with part of the intergenic spacer region from the ribosomal RNA gene complex of Aspergillus nidulans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 136:1991-1994.
367. Srikantha, T., and D. R. Soll. 1993. A white-specific gene in the white-opaque switching system of Candida albicans. Gene 131:53-60.
368. Steele, P. E., G. F. Carle, G. S. Kohayashi, and G. Medoff. 1989. Electrophoretic analysis of Histoplasma capsulatum chromosomal DNA. Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:983-987.
369. Steffan, P., J. A. Vazquez, D. Boikov, C. Xu, J. D. Sobel, and R. A. Akins. 1997. Identification of Candida species by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprinting of colony lysates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:2031-2039.
370. Stein, G. E., V. L. Sheridan, B. B. Magee, and P. T. Magee. 1991. Use of rDNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms to differentiate strains of Candida albicans in women with vulvovaginal candidiasis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 14:459-464.
371. Stiller, R. L., J. E. Bennett, H. J. Scholer, M. Wall, A. Polak, and D. A. Stevens. 1982. Susceptibility to 5-fluorocytosine and prevalence of serotype in 402 Candida albicans isolates from the United States. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 22:482-487.
372. Stringer, J. R., S. L. Stringer, J. Zhang, R. Baughman, A. G. Smulian, and M. T. Cushion. 1993. Molecular genetic distinction of Pneumocystic carinii from rats and humans. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 40:733-741.
373. Su, C.-S., and S. A. Meyer. 1991. Characterization of mitochondrial DNA in various Candida species: isolation, restriction endonuclease reaction, size and base composition. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 41:6-14.
374. Sullivan, D., D. Bennett, M. Henman, P. Harwood, S. Flint, F. Mulcahy, D. Shanley, and D. Coleman. 1993. Oligonucleotide fingerprinting of isolates of Candida species other than C. albicans and of atypical Candida species from human immunodeficiency virus-positive and AIDS patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:2124-2133.
375. Sullivan, D., K. Haynes, G. Moran, D. Shanley, and D. Coleman. 1996. Persistence, replacement, and microevolution of Cryptococcus neoformans strains in recurrent meningitis in AIDS patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34: 1739-1744.
376. Sullivan, D. J., M. C. Henman, G. P. Moran, L. C. O'Neill, D. E. Bennett, D. B. Shanley, and D. C. Coleman. 1996. Molecular genetic approaches to identification, epidemiology and taxonomy of non-albicans Candida species. J. Med. Microbiol. 44:399-408.
377. Sullivan, D. J., T. J. Westerneng, K. A. Haynes, D. E. Bennett, and D. C. Coleman. 1995. Candida dubliniensis sp. nov.: phenotypic and molecular characterization of a novel species associated with oral candidosis in HIV infected individuals. Microbiology 141:1507-1521.
378. Sukroongreung, S., C. Nilakul, O. Ruangsomboon, W. Chuakul, and B. Eampokalap. 1996. Serotypes of Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from patients prior to and during the AIDS era in Thailand. Mycopathologia 135:75-78.
379. Summers, D. F., A. P. Grollman, and H. F. Hasenclever. 1964. Polysaccharide antigens of Candida cell wall. J. Immunol. 92:491-499.
380. Sutherland, S. S., R. A. Hart, and N. B. Buller. 1996. Genetic differences between nitrate-negative and nitrate-positive C. pseudotuberculosis strains using restriction fragment length polymorphisms. Vet. Microbiol. 49:1-9.
381. Suzuki, T., I. Kobayashi, I. Mizuguchi, I. Banno, and K. Tanaka. 1988. Electrophoretic karyotypes in medically important Candida species. J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 34:409-416.
382. Swanson, H., P. A. Hughes, S. A. Messer, M. L. Lepow, and M. A. Pfaller. 1996. Candida albicans arthritis one year after successful treatment of fungemia in a healthy infant. J. Pediatr. 129:688-694.
383. Swanson, J., and J. M. Koomey. 1989. Mechanisms for variation of pili and outer membrane protein II in Neisseria gonorrhoea, p. 743-762. In D. E. Berg and M. M. Howe (ed.), Mobile DNA. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
384. Tanaka, K. 1997. Strain-relatedness among different populations of the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans analyzed by DNA-based methods. Nagoya J. Med. Sci. 60:1-14.
385. Tang, C. M., J. Cohen, A. J. Rees, and D. W. Holden. 1994. Molecular epidemiological study of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in a renal transplantation unit. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 13:318-321.
386. Taylor, J. W., D. M. Geiser, A. Burt, and V. Koufopanou. 1999. The evolutionary biology and population genetics underlying fungal strain typing. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12:126-146.
387. Thanos, M., G. Schönian, W. Meyer, C. Schweynoch, Y. Gräser, T. G. Mitchell, W. Presber, and H.-J. Tietz. 1996. Rapid identification of Candida species by DNA fingerprinting with PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:615-621.
388. Thormann, C. E., M. E. Ferreira, L. E. Camargo, J. G. Tivang, and T. C. Osborn. 1994. Comparison of RFLP and RAPD markers to estimate genetic relationships within and among cruciferous species. Theor. Appl. Genet. 88:973-980.
389. Thrash-Bingham, C., and J. A. Gorman. 1992. DNA translocations contribute to chromosome length polymorphisms in Candida albicans. Curr. Genet. 22:93-100.
390. Thrash-Bingham, C., and J. A. Gorman. 1993. Identification, characterization, and sequence of Candida albicans repetitive DNAs Rel-1 and Rel-2. Curr. Genet. 23:455-462.
391. Tibayrenc, M. 1998. Genetic epidemiology of parasitic protozoa and other infectious agents: the need for an integrated approach. Int. J. Parasitol. 28:85-104.
392. Tibayrenc, M., K. Neubauer, C. Barnabé, F. Guerrini, D. Skarecky, and F. J. Ayala. 1993. Genetic characterization of six parasitic protozoa: parity between random-primer DNA typing and multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:1335-1339.
393. Tietz, H. J., A. Kussner, M. Thanos, M. P. De Andrade, W. Presber, and G. Schonian. 1995. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of unusual vaginal isolates of Candida albicans from Africa. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2462-2465.
394. Tojo, M., N. Shibata, Y. Ban, and S. Suzuki. 1990. The phospho-D-mannan of Candida albicans NIH B-792 strain. Carbohydr. Res. 199:215-226.
395. van Belkum, A., W. Melchers, B. E. de Pauw, S. Scherer, W. Quint, and J. F. Meis. 1994. Genotypic characterization of sequential Candida albicans isolates from fluconazole-treated neutropenic patients. J. Infect. Dis. 169: 1062-1070.
396. van Belkum, A., W. Mol, R. van Saene, L. M. Ball, D. van Velzen, and W. Quint. 1994. PCR-mediated genotyping of Candida albicans strains from bone marrow transplant patients. Bone Marrow Transplant. 13:811-815.
397. Varma, A., and K. J. Kwon-Chung. 1992. DNA probe for strain typing of Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:2960-2967.
398. Vazquez, J. A., A. Beckley, S. Donabedian, J. D. Sobel, and M. J. Zervos. 1993. Comparison of restriction enzyme analysis and pulsed-field gradient gel electrophoresis as a typing system for Torulopsis glabrata and Candida species other than C. albicans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:2021-2030.
399. Vazquez, J. A., A. Beckley, J. D. Sobel, and M. J. Zervos. 1991. Comparison of restriction enzyme analysis and pulsed-field gradient gel electrophoresis as typing systems for Candida albicans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:962-967.
400. Vazquez, J. A., D. Boikov, S. G. Boikov, and A. S. Dajani. 1997. Use of electrophoretic katyotyping in the evaluation of Candida infections in a neonatal intensive-care unit. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 18:32-37.
401. Vazquez, J. A., L. M. Dembry, V. Sanchez, M. A. Vazquez, J. D. Sobel, C. Dmuchowski, and M. J. Zervos. 1998. Nosocomial Candida glabrata colonization: an epidemiologic study. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:421-426.
402. Vazquez, J. A., V. Sanchez, C. Dmuchowski, L. M. Dembry, J. D. Sobel, and M. J. Zervos. 1993. Nosocomial acquisition of Candida albicans: an epidemiologic study. J. Infect. Dis. 168:195-201.
403. Vazquez, J. A., J. D. Sobel, R. Demitriou, J. Vaishampayan, M. Lynch, and M. J. Zervos. 1994. Karyotyping of Candida albicans isolates obtained longitudinally in women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. J. Infect. Dis. 170:1566-1569.
404. Verweij, P. E., J. F. Meis, J. Sarfati, J. A. Hoogkamp-Korstanje, J. P. Latgé, and W. J. Melchers. 1996. Genotypic characterization of sequential Aspergillus fumigatus isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:2595-2597.
405. Vincent, R. D., R. Geowart, W. E. Goldman, G. S. Kobayashi, A. M. Lambowitz, and G. Medoff. 1986. Classification of Histoplasma capsulatum isolates by restriction fragment polymorphisms. J. Bacteriol. 165:813-818.
406. Vlad, M. 1977. Quantitative studies of rDNA in amphibians. J. Cell Sci. 24:109-118.
407. Vollrath, D., and R. W. Davis. 1987. Resolution of DNA molecules greater than 5 megabases by contour-clamped homogeneous electric fields. Nucleic Acids Res. 15:7865-7876.
408. Vos, P., R. Hogers, M. Bleeker, M. Reijans, T. van de Lee, M. Hornes, A. Frijters, J. Pot, J. Peleman, M. Kuiper, et al. 1995. AFLP: a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nucleic Acids Res. 23:4407-4414.
409. Voss, A., R. J. Hollis, M. A. Pfaller, R. P. Wenzel, and B. N. Doebbeling. 1994. Investigation of the sequence of colonization and candidemia in nonneutropenic patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:975-980.
410. Voss, A., M. A. Pfaller, R. J. Hollis, J. Rhine-Chalberg, and B. N. Doebbeling. 1995. Investigation of Candida albicans transmission in a surgical intensive care unit cluster by using genomic DNA typing methods. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:576-580.
411. Waggoner-Fountain, L. A., M. W. Walker, R. J. Hollis, M. A. Pfaller, J. E. Ferguson, R. P. Wenzel, and L. G. Donowitz. 1996. Vertical and horizontal transmission of unique Candida species to premature newborns. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22:803-808.
412. Welbel, S. F., M. M. McNeil, R. J. Kuykendall, T. J. Lott, A. Promanik, R. Silberman, A. D. Oberle, L. A. Bland, S. Aguero, M. Arduino, S. Crow, and W. R. Jarvis. 1996. Candida parapsilosis bloodstream infections in neonatal intensive care unit patients: epidemiologic and laboratory confirmation of a common source outbreak. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 15:998-1002.
413. Welsch, J., and M. McClelland. 1990. Fingerprinting genomes using PCR with arbitrary primers. Nucleic Acids Res. 18:7213-7224.
414. Wey, S. B., M. Mori, M. A. Pfaller, R. F. Woolson, and R. P. Wenzel. 1989. Risk factors for hospital-acquired candidemia. Arch. Intern. Med. 149: 2349-2353.
415. Whelan, W. L., D. R. Kirsch, K. J. Kwon-Chung, S. M. Wahl, and P. D. Smith. 1990. Candida albicans in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: absence of a novel or hypervirulent strain. J. Infect. Dis. 162:513-518.
416. Whelan, W. L., and P. T. Magee. 1981. Natural heterozygosity in Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol. 145:896-903.
417. White, T. C., K. A. Marr, and R. A. Bowden. 1998. Clinical, cellular and molecular factors that contribute to antifungal drug resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 11:382-402.
418. White, T. C., S. H. Miysaki, and N. Agabian. 1993. Three distinct secreted aspartyl proteinases in Candida albicans. J. Bacteriol. 175:6126-6133.
419. White, T. C., M. A. Pfaller, M. G. Rinaldi, J. Smith, and S. W. Redding. 1997. Stable azole drug resistance associated with a substrain of Candida albicans from an HIV-infected patient. Oral Dis. 3:S102-S109.
420. Wickes, B., J. Staudinger, B. B. Magee, K.-J. Kwon-Chung, P. T. Magee, and S. Scherer. 1991. Physical and genetic map of Candida albicans: several genes previously assigned to chromosome 1 map to chromosome R, the rDNA-containing linkage group. Infect. Immun. 59:2480-2484.
421. Wiley, J. M., N. Smith, B. G. Leventhal, M. L. Graham, L. C. Strauss, C. A. Hurwitz, J. Modlin, D. Mellits, R. Baumgardner, B. J. Corden, et al. 1990. Invasive fungal disease in pediatric acute leukemia patients with fever and neutropenia during induction chemotherapy: a multivariate analysis of risk factors. J. Clin. Oncol. 8:280-286.
422. Wilkinson, B. M., L. Morris, D. J. Adams, E. G. Evans, C. J. Lacey, and R. M. Walmsley. 1992. A new, sensitive polynucleotide probe for distinguishing Candida albicans strains and its use with computer assisted archiving and pattern comparison system. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 30:123-131.
423. Williams, J. G., A. R. Kubelik, K. J. Livak, and S. V. Tingey. 1990. DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucleic Acids Res. 18:6531-6535.
424. Williamson, M. I., L. P. Samaranayake, and T. W. MacFarlane. 1986. Biotypes of oral Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis isolates. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 24:81-84.
425. Williamson, M. I., L. P. Samaranayake, and T. W. MacFarlane. 1987. A new simple method for biotyping Candida albicans. Microbios 51:159-167.
426. Willinger, B., A. Berger, L. Li, A. M. Hirschl, C. Aspock, A. Makristathis, P. M. Pruckl, and M. L. Rotter. 1994. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis for the epidemiological analysis of yeast isolates. Mycoses 37:S57-S59.
427. Wills, J. W., B. A. Lasker, K. Sirotkin, and W. S. Riggsby. 1984. Repetitive DNA of Candida albicans: nuclear and mitochondrial components. J. Bacteriol. 157:918-924.
428. Wilson, D. E., J. E. Bennett, and J. W. Bailey. 1968. Serologic grouping of Cryptococcus neoformans. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 127:820-823.
429. Wingard, J. R., W. G. Merz, M. G. Rinaldi, C. B. Miller, J. E. Karp, and R. Saral. 1993. Association of Torulopsis glabrata infections with fluconazole prophylaxis in neutropenic bone marrow transplant patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37:1847-1849.
430. Wingard, J. R., W. G. Merz, M. G. Rinaldi, T. R. Johnson, J. E. Karp, and R. Saral. 1991. Increase in Candida krusei infection among patients with bone marrow transplantation and neutropenia treated prophylactically with fluconazole. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:1274-1277.
431. Woods, J. P., D. Kersulyte, W. E. Goldman, and D. E. Berg. 1993. Fast DNA isolation from Histoplasma capsulatum: methodology for arbitrary primer polymerase chain reaction-based epidemiological and clinical studies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:463-464.
432. Xu, J., T. G. Mitchell, and R. Vilgalys. 1999. PCR-RFLP analyses reveal extensive clonality and local genetic differentiation in Candida albicans. Ecology 8:59-74.
433. Xu, J., R. Vilgalys, and T. G. Mitchell. 1999. Lack of genetic differentiation between two geographically diverse samples of Candida albicans isolated from patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J. Bacteriol. 181:1369-1373.
434. Xu, Y. Y., and L. P. Samaranayake. 1995. Oral Candida albicans biotypes in Chinese patients with and without oral candiosis. Arch. Oral Biol. 40:577-579.
435. Yates, S. K., D. M. Sander, and E. J. Keath. 1995. Genetic diversity in clinical isolates of the dimorphic fungus Blastomyces dermatitidis detected by a PCR-based random amplified polymorphic DNA assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2171-2175.
436. Yuan, K. Y., W. H. Seto, T. Y. Ching, W. C. Cheung, Y. Kwok, and Y. B. Chu. 1992. An outbreak of Candida tropicalis peritonitis in patients on intermittent peritoneal dialysis. J. Hosp. Infect. 22:65-72.
437. Zeng, S., L. C. Wu, and P. F. Lehmann. 1996. Random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis of culture collection strains of Candida species. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 34:293-297.
438. Zhang, J., R. J. Hollis, and M. A. Pfaller. 1997. Variations in DNA subtype and antifungal susceptibility among clinical isolates of Candida tropicalis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 27:63-67.