Blood volume: Importance and adaptations to exercise training, environmental stresses, and trauma/sickness

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 332-348

  Sawka, Michael N ^a   Convertino, Victor A ^b   Eichner, E Randy ^b   Schnieder, Suzanne M ^b   Young, Andrew J ^b  

^a U S ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Erythrocyte volume; Heat stress; Hypoxia; Microgravity; Physical exercise; Plasma volume; Space; Vascular volumes

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; AEROBIC CAPACITY; ALTITUDE ACCLIMATIZATION; BLOOD VOLUME; CENTRAL VENOUS PRESSURE; DEHYDRATION; ERYTHROCYTE VOLUME; EXERCISE; HEALING; HUMAN; INJURY; MICROGRAVITY; PLASMA VOLUME; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; STRESS; TEMPERATURE ACCLIMATIZATION; THERMOREGULATION; TOTAL BODY WATER;

EID: 0033955637     PISSN: 01959131     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200002000-00012     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. ADOLPH, E. F. and ASSOCIATES. Physiology of Man in the Desert. New York: Intersciences, Inc., 1947.
2. AKGUN, N., N. TARTAROGLU, F. DURUSOY, and E. KOCATURK. The relationship between the changes in physical fitness and in total blood volume in subjects having regular and measured training. J. Sports Med. 14:73-77, 1974.
3. ALEXANDER, J. K., L. H. HARTLEY, M. MODELSKI, and R. F. GROVER. Reduction of stroke volume during exercise in man following ascent to 3100 m altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 23:849-858, 1967.
4. ALFREY, C. P., M. M. UDDEN, C. LEACH-HUNTOON, T. DRISCOLL, and M. H. PICKETT. Control of red cell mass in spaceflight. J. Appl. Physiol. 81:98-104, 1996.
5. ALTMAN, P. L. Blood and Other Body Fluids. Washington, DC: Federation of Am. Societies for Experimental Biology, 1961, pp. 1-2.
6. ANDREW, M., H. O'BRODOVICH, and J. SUTTON. Operation Everest II: coagulation system during prolonged decompression to 282 torr. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:1262-1267, 1987.
7. BASS, D. E., E. R. BUSKIRK, P. F. IAMPIETRO, 61nd M. MAGER. Comparison of blood volume during physical conditioning, heat acclimatization, and sedentary living. J. Appl. Physiol. 12:186-188, 1958.
8. BASS, D. E., C. R. KLEEMAN, M. QUINN, A. HENSCHEL, and A. H. HEGNAUER. Mechanisms of acclimatization to heat in man. Medicine 34:323-380, 1955.
9. BEGUIN, Y., G. LIPSCEI, H. THOUMSIN, and G. FILET. Blunted erythropoietin production and decreased erythropoiesis in early pregnancy. Blood 78:89-93, 1991.
10. BENDER, P. R., B. M. GROVES, R. G. MCCULLOUGH, et al. Oxygen transport to exercising leg in chronic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:2592-2597, 1988.
11. BERGLUND, B. and B. EKBLOM. Effect of recombinant human erythropoietin treatment on blood pressure and some haematological parameters in healthy men. J. Intern. Med. 229:125-130, 1991.
12. BRANCH, J. D., R. R. PATE, S. P. BOURQUE, V. A. CONVERTINO, J. L. DURSTINE, and D. S. WARD. Effects of exercise mode on hematologic adaptations to endurance training in adult females. Aviat. Space Environ. Med 68:788-794, 1997.
13. BRANCH, J. D., R. S. PATE, S. P. BOURQUE, V. A. CONVERTINO, J. L. DURSTINE, and D. S. WARD. Exercise training and intensity does not alter vascular responses in women. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine. 70:1070-1076, 1999.
14. BROTHERHOOD, J. BROZAVIC, and L. PUGH. Haemoatological status of middle- and long-distance runners. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 48:139-145, 1975.
15. BUCKEY, J. C., F. A. GAFFNEY, L. D. LANE, et al. Central venous pressure in space. J. Appl. Physiol. 81:19-25, 1996.
16. CADARETTE, B. S., M. N. SAWKA, M. M. TONER, and K. B. PANDOLF. Aerobic fitness and the hypohydration response to exercise-heat stress. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 55:507-512, 1984.
17. CANNON, J. G. and M. J. KLUGER. Endogenous pyrogen activity in human plasma after exercise. Science 220:617-619, 1983.
18. CANNON, J. G., S. N. MEDYANI, R. A. FIELDING, et al. Acute phase response in exercise: II. associations between vitamin E, cytokines, and muscle proteolysis. Am. J. Physiol. 260:R1235-R1240, 1991.
19. CARROLL, J. F., V. A. CONVERTINO, C. E. WOOD, J. E. GRAVES, D. T. LOWENTHAL, and M. L. POLLOCK. Effect of training on blood volume and plasma hormone concentration in the elderly. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 27:665-669, 1995.
20. CHAPMAN, R. F., J. STRAY-GUNDERSEN, and B. D. LEVINE. Individual variation in altitude training. J. Appl. Physiol. 85:1448-1455, 1998.
21. CHARLES, J. B., M. W. BUNGO, and G. W. FORTNER. Cardiopulmonary function. In: Space Physiology and Medicine, A. E. Nicogossian, C. L. Huntoon, and S. L. Pool (Ed.). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1994, pp. 286-304.
22. CLAREMONT, A. D., D. L. COSTILL, W. FINK, and P. VAN HANDEL. Heat tolerance following diuretic induced dehydration. Med. Sci. Sports 8:239-243, 1976.
23. CONVERTINO, V. A. Blood volume: its adaptation to endurance training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23:1338-1348, 1991.
24. CONVERTINO, V. A. Endurance exercise training: conditions of enhanced hemodynamic responses and tolerance to LBNP. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25:705-712, 1993.
25. CONVERTINO, V. A. Clinical aspects of the control of plasma volume at microgravity and during return to one gravity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 28:S45-S52, 1996.
26. CONVERTINO, V. A., P. J. BROCK, L. C. KEIL, E. M. BERNAUER, and J. E. GREENLEAF. Exercise training-induced hypervolemia: role of plasma albumin, renin, and vasopressin. J. Appl. Physiol. 48:665-669, 1980.
27. CONVERTINO, V. A., J. E. GREENLEAF, and E. M. BERNAUER. Role of thermal and exercise factors in the mechanism of hypervolemia. J. Appl. Physiol. 48:657-664, 1980.
28. CONVERTINO, V. A., L. C. KEIL, and J. E. GREENLEAF. Plasma volume, renin, and vasopressin responses to graded exercise after training. J. Appl. Physiol. 54:508-514, 1983.
29. COYLE, E. F., M. K. HEMMERT, and A. R. COGGAN. Effects of detraining on cardiovascular responses to exercise: role of blood volume. J. Appl. Physiol. 60:95-99, 1986.
30. COYLE, E. F. and S. J. MONTAIN. Thermal and cardiovascular responses to fluid replacemant during exercise. In: Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine: Vol. 6, Exercise, Heat, and Thermoregulation, C. V. Gisolfi, D. R. Lamb, and E. R. Nadel (Ed.). Debuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark, 1993, pp. 179-223.
31. DAVY, K. P. and D. R. SEALS. Total blood volume in healthy young and older men. J. Appl. Physiol. 76:2059-2062, 1994.
32. DILL, D. B., K. BRAITHWAITE, W. C. ADAMS, and E. M. BERNAUER. Blood volume of middle-distance runners: effects of 2,300-m altitude and comparison with nonathletes. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 6:1-7, 1974.
33. DILL, D. B., F. G. HALL, K. D. HALL, C. DAWSON, and J. L. NEWTON. Blood, plasma, and red cell volumes: age, exercise, and environment. J. Appl. Physiol. 21:597-602, 1966.
34. DILL, D. B., S. M. HORVATH, T. E. DAHMS, R. E. PARKER, and J. R. LYNCH. Hemoconcentration at altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 27:514-518, 1969.
35. DONTAS, S. Mechanism of heat regulation. Pflügers Arch. 241: 612-629, 1939.
36. DOUGLAS, S. W. and J. W. ADAMSON. The anemia of chronic disorders: studies of marrow regulation and iron metabolism. Blood 45:55-65, 1975.
37. DOUPE, J., M. H. FERGUSON, and J. A. HILDES. Seasonal fluctuations in blood volume. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 35:203-213, 1957.
38. EICHNER, E. R. Sports anemia, iron supplements, and blood doping. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24:8315-8318, 1992.
39. ELLIOTT, M. J., M. FELDMAN, J. R. KALDEN, et al. Randomized double-blind comparison of chimeric monoclonal antibody to tumor necrosis factor alpha versus placebo in rheumatic arthritis. Lancet 344:1105-1110, 1994.
40. ESCHBACH, J. W., M. H. ABDULHADI, J. K. BROWNE, et al. Recombinant human erythropoietin in anamic patients with end-stage renal disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 111:992-1000, 1989.
41. EVANS, W. J. and J. G. CANNON. The metabolic effects of exercise-induced muscle damage after exercise. In: Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, J. O. Holloszy (Ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1991, pp. 99-126.
42. FOLDAGER, N., T. A. E. ANDERSON, F. B. JESSEN, et al. Central venous pressure in humans during microgravity. J. Appl. Physiol. 81:408-412, 1996.
43. FORTNEY, S. M., E. R. NADEL, C. B. WENGER, and J. R. BOVE. Effect of acute alterations of blood volume on circulatory performance in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 50:292-298, 1981.
44. FORTNEY, S. M., E. R. NADEL, C. B. WENGER, and J. R. BOVE. Effect of blood volume on sweating rate and body fluids in exercising humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 51:1594-1600, 1981.
45. FORTNEY, S. M. and L. C. SENAY. Effect of training and heat acclimation on exercise responses of sedentary females. J. Appl. Physiol. 47:978-984, 1979a.
46. FORTNEY, S. M. and L. C. SENAY. The effect of a modest training program on the responses of females to work in a hot environment. J. Appl. Physiol. 47:978-984, 1979.
47. FORTNEY, S. M., C. B. WENGER, J. R. BOVE, and E. R. NADEL. Effect of hyperosmolality on control of blood flow and sweating. J. Appl. Physiol. 57:1688-1695, 1984.
48. FRANCESCONI, R. P., M. N. SAWKA, R. C. DENNIS, R. R. GONZALEZ, A. J. YOUNG, and R. C. VALERI. Autologous red cell rein-fusion: effects on stress and fluid regulatory hormones during exercise in the heat. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 59:133-137, 1988.
49. FREUND, B. J., S. J. MONTAIN, A. J. YOUNG, et al. Glycerol hyperhydration: hormonal, renal, and vascular fluid responses. J. Appl. Physiol. 79:2069-2077, 1995.
50. FULCO, C. S., P. B. ROCK, and A. CYMERMAN. Maximal and submaximal exercise performance at altitude. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 69:793-801, 1998.
51. GAREAU, R., M. AUDRAN, R. D. BAYNES, et al. Erythropoietin abuse in athletes. Nature 380:113, 1996.
52. GILLEN, C. M., R. LEE, G. W. MACK, C. M. TOMASELL, T. NISHIYASU, and E. R. NADEL. Plasma volume expansion in humans after a single intense exercise protocol. J. Appl. Physiol. 71:1914-1920, 1991.
53. 11CO red cell labeling for blood volume and total Hb in atheletes: effect of training. J. Appl. Physiol. 26:131-134, 1969.
54. GRANDE, F., J. E. MONAGLE, E. R. BUSKIRK, and H. L. TAYLOR. Body temperature responses to exercise in man on restricted food and water intake. J. Appl. Physiol. 14:194-198, 1959.
55. GRANT, S. M., H. J. GREEN, S. M. PHILLIPS, and J. R. SUTTON. Effects of acute plasma expansion of plasma volume on cardiovascular and thermal function during prolonged exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 76:356-362, 1997.
56. GREEN, H. J., L. L. JONES, R. L. HUGHSON, D. C. PAINTER, and B. W. FARRANCE. Training-induced hypervolemia:lack of an effect on oxygen utilization during exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 19:202-206, 1987.
57. GREEN, H. J., L. L. JONES, and D. C. PAINTER. Effects of short-term training on cardiac function during prolonged exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22:488-493, 1990.
58. GREEN, H. J., J. R. SUTTON, G. COATES, M. ALI, and S. JONES. Responses of red cell and plasma volume to prolonged training in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 70:1810-1815, 1991.
59. GREEN, H. J., J. A. THOMSON, M. E. BALL, R. L. HUGHSON, M. E. HOUSTON, and M. T. SHARRATT. Alterations in blood volume following short-term supramaximal exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 56:145-149, 1984.
60. 2max in man at simualted altitude (2,287 m). J. Appl. Physiol. 44:652-658, 1978.
61. GREENLEAF, J. E., J. S. BOSCO, and M. MATTER. Orthostatic tolerance in dehydrated, heat-acclimated men following exercise in the heat. Aerospace Med. 45:491-497, 1974.
62. GREENLEAF, J. E., P. J. BROCK, J. T. MORSE, et al. Effect of sodium and calcium ingestion on thermoregulation during exercise in man. In: New Trends in Thermal Physiology, Y. Houdas and J.D. Guieu (Eds.). Paris: Masson, 1978, pp. 157-160.
63. GREENLEAF, J. E., V. A. CONVERTINO, and G. R. MANGSETH. Plasma volume during stress in man: osmolality and red cell volume. J. Appl. Physiol. 47:1031-1038, 1979.
64. GREENLEAF, J. E., D. SCIARAFFA, E. SHVARTZ, L. C. KEIL, and P. J. BROCK. Exercise training hypotension: implications for plasma volume, renin, and vasopressin. J. Appl. Physiol. 51:298-305, 1981.
65. GREENLEAF, J. E. and C. E. VERNIKOS. Effect of leg exercise training on vascular volumes during 30 days of 6 degrees head-down bed rest. J. Appl. Physiol. 72:1887-1894, 1992.
66. GROVER, R. F., M. A. SELLAND, R. G. MCCULLOUGN, et al. Beta-adrenergic blockade does not prevent polycythemia or decrease in plasma volume in men at 4300 m altitude. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 77:264-270, 1997.
67. GROVER, R. F., J. V. WEIL, and J. T. REEVES. Cardiovascular adaptation to exercise at high altitude. In: Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, K. B. Pandolf (Ed.). New York: MacMillan, 1986, pp. 269-302.
68. HANNON, J. P., J. L. SHIELDS, and C. W. HARRIS. Effects of altitude acclimatization on blood composition of women. J. Appl. Physiol. 26:540-547, 1969.
69. HANSEN, J. M., N. VIDIENDAL, B. FELDT-RASMUSSEN, et al. Albuminuria and overall capillary permeability of albumin in acute hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 76:1922-1927, 1994.
70. HARRISON, M. H., R. J. EDWARDS, and P. A. FENNESSY. Intravascular volume and tonicity as factors in the regulation of body temperature. J. Appl. Physiol. 44:69-75, 1978.
71. HENRY, D. H., G. N. BEALL, C. A. BENSON, et al. Recombinant human erythropoietin in treatment of anemia associated with immunodeficiency virus infection and zidovudine therapy: overview of four clinical trials. Ann. Intern. Med. 117:739-748, 1992.
72. HOLMGREN, A., F. MOSSFELDT, T. SJOSTRAND, and G. STROM. Effect of training on work capacity, total Hb. blood volume, heart volume, and pulse rate in recumbent and upright positions. Acta Physiol. Scand. 50:72-83, 1960.
73. HOPPER, M. K., A. R. COGGAN, and E. F. COYLE. Exercise stroke volume relative to plasma-volume expansion. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:404-408, 1988.
74. HORI, S., H, IHZUHKA, and M. NAKAMURA. Studies on physiological responses of residents in Okinawa to a hot environment. Jpn. J. Physiol. 26:235-244, 1976.
75. HORVATH, S. M. and E. C. HORVATH. The Harvard Fatigue Laboratory: Its History and Contributions. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973, pp. 149-150.
76. HOYT, R. W. and A. HONIG. Environmental influences on body fluid balance during exercise: altitude. In: Body Fluid Balance: Exercise and Sport, E. R. Buskirk and S. M. Puhl (Ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1996, pp. 183-196.
77. HURTADO, A., C. MERINO, and J. DELIMA. Influence of anoxemia on the homopoietic activity. Arch. Intern. Med. 53:284-323, 1945.
78. IFUDU, O., J. FELDMAN, and E. A. FRIEDMAN. The intensity of hemodialysis and the response to erythropoietin in patients with end-stage renal disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 334:420-425, 1996.
79. INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION IN HEMATOLOGY. Recommended methods for measurement of red-cell and plasma volume. J. Nucl. Med. 21:793-800, 1980.
80. JAIN, S. C., J. BARDHAN, Y. V. SWAMY, B. KRISHNA, and H. S. NAYAR. Body fluid components in humans during acute high-altitude exposure. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 51:234-236, 1980.
81. JONES, P. P., K. P. DAVY, C. A. DESOUZA, R. E. VAN PELT, and D. R. SEALS. Absence of age-related decline in total blood volume in physically active females. Am. J. Physiol. 272: H2534-H2540, 1997.
82. JUNG, R. C., D. B. DILL, R. HORTON, and S. M. HORVATH. Effects of age on plasma aldosteronelevels and hemoconcentration at altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 31:593-597, 1971.
83. KENNEY, W. L., C. G. TANKERSLEY, D. L. NEWSWANGER, D. E. HYDE, S. M. PUHL, and N. L. TURNERA. Age and hypohydration independently influence the peripheral vascular response to heat stress. J. Appl. Physiol. 8:1902-1908, 1990.
84. KIRBY, C. R. and V. A. CONVERTING. Plasma aldosterone and sweat sodium concentrations after exercise and heat acclimation. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:967-970, 1986.
85. KIRSCH, K. A., L. ROCKER, O. H. GAUER, et al. Venous pressure in man during weightlessness. Science 225:218-219, 1984.
86. KJELLBERG, S. R., U. RUDHE, and T. SJOSTRAND. Increase of the amount of Hb and blood volume in connection with physical training. Acta Physiol. Scand. 19:147-151, 1949.
87. KOENIG, S. C., V. A. CONVERTINO, J. W. FANTON, et al. Evidence for increased cardiac compliance during exposure to simulated microgravity. Am. J. Physiol. 275:R1343-R1352, 1998.
88. KRANTZ, S. B. Pathogenesis and treatment of anemia of chronic disease. Am. J. Med. Sci. 307:353-367, 1994.
89. KRASNEY, J. A. Head-out water immersion: animal studies. In: Handbook of Physiology, Section 4, Environmental Physiology, M. J. Fregly and C. M. Blatteis (Ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 855-887.
90. KUBICA, R., B. NIELSEN, A. BONNESEN, I. B. RASMUSSEN, J. STOKLOSA, and B. WILK. Relationship between plasma volume reduction and plasma electrolyte changes after prolonged bicycle exercise, passive heating and diuretic dehydration. Acta Physiol. Pol. 34:569-579, 1983.
91. LATZKA, W. A., M. N. SAWKA, S. MONTAIN, et al. Thermoregulatory effects during compensable exercise: heat stress. J. Appl. Physiol. 83:860-866, 1997.
92. LATZKA, W. A., M. N. SAWKA, S. J. MONTAIN, et al. Hyperhydration: tolerance and cardiovascular effects during uncompensable exercise: heat stress. J. Appl. Physiol. 84:1858-1863, 1998.
93. LAWSON, H. C. The volume of blood: a critical examination of methods for its measurement. In: Circulation, Sect. 2, W. F. Hamilton (Ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Physiological Society, 1962, pp. 23-49.
94. LEACH, C. S., C. P. ALFREY, W. N. SUKI, et al. Regulation of body fluid compartments during short-term spaceflight. J. Appl. Physiol. 81:105-116, 1996.
95. LEE, D. H. K., R. E. MURRAY, and R. G. ATHERTON. The effect of exercise in hot atmospheres upon the salt-water balance of human subjects. Med. J. Aust. 2:249-258, 1941.
96. LEVINE, B. D., L. D. LANE, J. C. BUCKLEY, D. B. FRIEDMAN, and C. G. BLOMQVIST. Left ventricular pressure volume and Frank-Starling relations in endurance athletes: implications for orthostatic tolerance and exercise performance. Circulation 84:1016-1023, 1991.
97. LEVINE, B. D. and J. STRAY-GUNDERSEN. "Living high-training low": effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 83:102-112, 1997.
98. LEWIS, D. M., A. R. BRADWELL, A. C. SHORE, M. BEAMAN, and J. E. TOOKE. Capillary filtration coefficient and urinary albumin leak at altitude. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 27:64-68, 1997.
99. LUETKEMEIER, M. J., K. M. FLOWERS, and D. R. LAMB. Spironolactone administration and training-induced hypervolemia. Int. J. Sports Med. 15:295-300, 1994.
100. MACK, G. W. and E. R. NADEL. Body fluid balance during heat stress in humans. In: Environmental Physiology, M. J. Fregly and C. M. Blatteis (Ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 187-214.
101. MACK, G. W., X. SHI, H. NOSE. A. TRIPATHI, and E. R. NADEL. Diminished baroreflex control of forearm vascular resistance in physically fit humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:105-110, 1987.
102. MCGUIRE, M. J. and J. L. SPIVAK. Erythrocytosis and polycythemia. In: The Fundamentals of Clinical Hematology, J. L. Spivak and E. R. Eichner (Ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, 1993, pp. 117-128.
103. MIER, C. M., M. A. DOMENICK, N. S. TURNER, and J. H. WILMORE. Changes in stroke volume and maximal aerobic capacity with increased blood volume in men and women. J. Appl. Physiol. 80:1180-1186, 1996.
104. MONTAIN, S. J. and E. F. COYLE. Fluid ingestion during exercise increases skin blood flow independent of increases in blood volume. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:903-910, 1992a.
105. MONTAIN, S. J. and E. F. COYLE. Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:1340-1350, 1992b.
106. MONTAIN, S. J., W. A. LATZKA, and M. N. SAWKA. Control of thermoregulatory sweating is altered by hydration level and exercise intensity. J. Appl. Physiol. 79:1434-1439, 1995.
107. MONTAIN, S. J., M. N. SAWKA, W. A. LATZKA, and C. R. VALERI. Thermal and cardiovascular strain from hypohydration: Influence of exercise intensity. Int. J. Sports Med. 19:87-91, 1998.
108. MYHRE, L. G., D. B. DILL, and D. K. BROWN. Blood volume changes during three-week residence at high altitude. Clin. Chem. 16:7-14, 1970.
109. NADEL, E. R. Circulatory and thermal regulations during exercise. Fed. Proc. 39:1491-1497, 1980.
110. NADEL, E. R. Circulatory and thermal regulations during exercise: recent advances in temperature regulation during exercise in humans. Fed. Proc. 44:2286-2292, 1985.
111. NATOCHIN, Y. V., A. I. GRIGORIEV, V. B. NOSKOW, et al. Mechanism of postflight decline in osmotic concentration of urine in cosmonauts. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 62:1037-1043, 1991.
112. NIELSEN, B. Effects of changes in plasma volume and osmolarity on thermoregulation during exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 90: 725-730, 1974.
113. NIELSEN, B. Temperature regulation: effects of sweat loss during prolonged exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 128:105-109, 1986.
114. NIELSEN, B., J. R. S. HALES, S. STRANGE, N. J. CHRISTENSEN, J. WARBERG, and B. SALTIN. Human circulatory and thermoregulatory adaptations with heat acclimation and exercise in a hot, dry environment. J. Physiol. 460:467-485, 1993.
115. NIELSEN, B., G. HANSEN, S. O. JORGENSEN, and E. NIELSEN. Thermoregulation in exercising man during dehydration and hyperhydration with water and saline. Int. J. Biometeorol. 15: 195-200, 1971.
116. O'TOOLE, M. L., P. S. DOOUGLAS, W. D. B. HILLER, and R. H. LAIRD. Hcts of triathletes: is monitoring useful? Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 31:372-377, 1999.
117. OSCAI, L. B., B. T. WILLIAMS, and B. A. HERTIG. Effect of exercise on blood volume. J. Appl. Physiol. 24:622-624, 1968.
118. PATTERSON, M. J., J. D. COTTER, and N. A. TAYLOR. Thermal tolerance following artificially induced polycythemia. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 71:416-423, 1995.
119. PEARCY, M., S. ROBINSON, D. I. MILLER, J. T. THOMAS, JR., and J. DEBROTA. Effects of dehydration, salt depletion, and pitressin on sweat rate and urine flow. J. Appl. Physiol. 8:621-626, 1956.
120. PINCUS, T., N. J. OLSEN, I. J. RUSSELL, et al. Multicenter study of recombinant human erythropoietin in correction of anemia in rheumatoid arthritis. Am. J. Med. 89:161-168, 1990.
121. PUGH, L. G. C. E. Blood volume and haemoglobin concentration at altitudes above 18,000 ft. (5500 m). J. Physiol. 170:344-354, 1964.
122. PUGH, L. G. C. E. Cold stress and muscular exercise, with special reference to accidential hypothermia. Br. Med. J. 2:333-337, 1967.
123. PUGH, L. G. C. E. Blood volume changes in outdoor exercises of 8-10 hour duration. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 200:345-351, 1969.
124. RAY, C. A., K. J. CURETON, and H. G. OUZTS. Postural specificity of cardiovascular adaptations to exercise training. J. Appl. Physiol. 69:2202-2208, 1990.
125. REEVES, J. T., B. M. GROVES, J. R. SUTTON, et al. Operation Everest II: preservation of cardiac function at extreme altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:531-539, 1987.
126. REMES, K. Effect of long-term physical training on total red cell volume. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 39:311-319, 1979.
127. RERYCH, S. K., P. M. SCHOLZ, D. C. SABISTON, and R. H. JONES. Effects of exercise training on left ventricular function in normal subjects: a longitudinal study by radionuclide angiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 45:244-252, 1980.
128. ROCKER, L., W. K. DRYGAS, and B. HEYDUCK. Blood platelet activation and increases in thrombin activity following a marathon race. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:374-380, 1986.
129. ROCKER, L., M. TAENZER, W. K. DRYGAS, H. LILL, B. HEYDUCK, and H. U. ALTENKIRCH. Effect of prolonged physical exercise on the fibrinolytic system. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 60:478-481, 1990.
130. SANCHEZ, C., C. MERINO, and M. FIGALLO. Simultaneous measurement of plasma volume and cell mass in polycythemia of high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 28:775-778, 1970.
131. SAWKA, M. N. Physiological consequences of hydration: exercise performance and thermoregulation. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24:657-670, 1992.
132. SAWKA, M. N. and E. F. COYLE. Influence of body water and blood volume on thermoregulation and exercise performance in the heat. In: Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, J. O. Hollozsy (Ed.). Baltimore. MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1999, pp. 167-218.
133. SAWKA, M. N., R. C. DENNIS, R. R. GONZALEZ, et al. Influence of polycythemia on blood volume and thermoregulation during exercise-heat stress. J. Appl. Physiol. 62:912-918, 1987.
134. SAWKA, M. N., R. P. FRANCESCONI, A. J. YOUNG, and K. B. PANDOLF. Influence of hydration level and body fluids on exercise performance in the heat. JAMA 252:1165-1169, 1984.
135. SAWKA, M. N., R. R. GONZALEZ, A. J. YOUNG, R. C. DENNIS, C. R. VALERI, and K. B. PANDOLF. Control of thermoregulatory sweating during exercise in the heat. Am. J. Physiol. 257:R311-R316, 1989.
136. SAWKA, M. N., R. R. GONZALEZ, A. J. YOUNG, et al. Polycythemia and hydration: effects on thermoregulation and blood volume during exercise-heat stress. Am. J. Physiol. 255:R456-R463, 1988.
137. SAWKA, M. N., R. W. HUBBARD, R. P. FRANCESCONI, and D. H. HORSTMAN. Effects of acute plasma volume expansion on altering exercise: heat performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 51:303-312, 1983.
138. SAWKA, M. N., M. J. JOYNER, D. S. MILES, R. J. ROBERTSON, L. L. SPRIET, and A. J. YOUNG. American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: The Use of Blood Doping as an Ergogenic Aid. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 28:i-viii, 1996.
139. SAWKA, M. N., R. G. KNOWLTON, and J. B. CRITZ. Thermal and circulatory responses to repeated bouts of prolonged running. Med. Sci. Sports 11:177-180, 1979.
140. SAWKA, M. N., S. J. MONTAIN, and W. A. LATZKA. Body fluid balance during exercise: heat exposure. In: Body Fluid Balance: Exercise and Sport, E. R. Buskirk and S. M. Puhl (Ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1996, pp. 143-161.
141. SAWKA, M. N. and K. B. PANDOLF. Effects of body water loss on physiological function and exercise performance. In: Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine. Vol. 3: Fluid Homeostasis during Exercise, C. V. Gisolfi and D. R. Lamb (Ed.). Carmel, IN: Benchmark Press, 1990, pp. 1-38.
142. SAWKA, M. N., M. M. TONER, R. P. FRANCESCONI, and K. B. PANDOLF. Hypohydration and exercise: effects of heat acclimation, gender, and environment. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:1147-1153, 1983.
143. SAWKA, M. N., C. B. WENGER, and K. B. PANDOLF. Thermoregulatory responses to acute exercise-heat stress and heat acclimation. In: Handbook of Physiology, Sect. 4. Environmental Physiology, M. J. Fregly and C. M. Blatteis (Eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 157-185.
144. SAWKA, M. N., A. J. YOUNG, R. P. FRANCESCONI, S. R. MUZA, and K. B. PANDOLF. Thermoregulatory and blood responses during exercise at graded hypohydration levels. J. Appl. Physiol. 59: 1394-1401, 1985.
145. SAWKA, M. N., A. J. YOUNG, S. R. MUZA, R. R. GONZALEZ, and K. B. PANDOLF. Erythrocyte reinfusion and maximal aerobic power. JAMA 257:1496-1499, 1987.
146. SAWKA, M. N., A. J. YOUNG, K. B. PANDOLF, R. C. DENNIS, and C. R. VALERI. Erythrocyte, plasma, and blood volume of healthy young men. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24:447-453, 1992.
147. SAWKA, M. N., A. J. YOUNG, P. B. ROCK, et al. Altitude acclimatization and blood volume: effects of exogenous erythrocyte volume expansion. J. Appl. Physiol. 81:636-642, 1996.
148. SCHMIDT, W., K. U. ECKARDT, A. HILGENDORF, S. STRAUCH, and C. BAUER. Effects of maximal and submaximal exercise under normoxic and hypoxic conditions on serum erythropoietin level. Int. J. Sports Med. 12:457-461, 1991.
149. SCHMIDT, W., N. MAASEN, F. TROST, and D. BONING. Training induced effects on blood volume, erythrocyte turnover, and haemoglobin oxygen binding properties. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 57:490-498, 1988.
150. SCHREIBER, S., S. HOWALDT, M. SCHNOOR, et al. Recombinant erythropoietin for the treatment of anemia in inflamatory bowel disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 334:619-623, 1996.
151. +], and osmolality in acute heat stress. J. Appl. Physiol. 25:149-152, 1968.
152. SENAY, L. C., D. MITCHELL, and C. H. WYNDHAM. Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: body fluid adjustments. J. Appl. Physiol. 40:786-796, 1976.
153. SHAPIRO, Y., R. W. HUBBARD, C. M. KIMBROUGH, and K. B. PANDOLF. Physiological and hematologic responses to summer and winter dry-heat acclimation. J. Appl. Physiol. 50:792-798, 1981.
154. SHI, X., J. M. ANDERSEN, J. T. POTTS, B. H. FORESMAN, S. A. STERN, and P. B. RAVEN. Aortic baroreflex control of heart rate during hypertensive stimuli: effect of fitness. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:1555-1562, 1993.
155. SHOEMAKER, J. K., H. J. GREEN, J. COATES, M. ALI, and S. GRANT. Failure of prolonged exercise training to increase red cell mass in humans. Am. J. Physiol. 270:H121-H126, 1996.
156. SPIVAK, J. L. Recombinant human erythropoietin and the anemia of cancer. Blood 84:997-1004, 1994.
157. STACHENFELD, N. S., G. W. MACK, L. DIPIETRO, T. S. MOROCCO, A. C. JOZSI, and E. R. NADEL. Regulation of blood volume during training in post-menopausal women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 30:92-98, 1998.
158. STEVENS, G. H. J., B. H. FORESMAN, X. SHI, S. A. STERN, and P. B. RAVEN. Reduction in LBNP tolerance following prolonged endurance exercise training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24:1235-1244, 1992.
159. STEVENSON, E. T., K. P. DAVY, and D. R. SEALS. Maximal aerobic capacity and total blood volume in highly trained middle-aged and older female endurance athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 77:1691-1696, 1994.
160. STOKKE, K. T., K. ROOTWELT, R. WERGELAND, and J. R. VALE. Changes in plasma and red cell volumes during exposure to high altitude. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 46:113-117, 1986.
161. STRYDOM, N. B. and D. L. HOLDSWORTH. The effects of different levels of water deficit on physiological responses during heat stress. Int. Z. Angew. Physiol. 26:95-102, 1968.
162. SURKS, M. I., K. S. K. CHINN, and L. O. MATOUSH. Alterations in body composition in man after acute exposure to high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 21:1741-1746, 1966.
163. SUTTON, J. R., J. T. REEVES, P. D. WAGNER, et al. Operation Everest II: oxygen transport during exercise at extreme simulated altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:1309-1321, 1988.
164. TASSOLI, M. Anemia of spaceflight. Blood 60:1059-1067, 1992.
165. VALERI, C. R. and M. D. ALTSCHULE. Hypovolemic Anemia of Trauma: the Missing Blood Syndrome. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1981, pp. 1-145.
166. WEIL, J. V., G. JAMIESON, D. W. BROWN, and R. F. GROVER. The red cell mass-arterial oxygen relationship in normal man. J. Clin. Invest. 47:1627-1639, 1968.
167. WHITE, R. J. and C. G. BLOMQVIST. Central venous pressure and cardiac function during spaceflight. J. Appl. Physiol. 85:738-746, 1998.
168. WIDE, L., C. BENGTSSON, B. BERGLAND, and B. EKLOM. Detection in blood and urine of recombiant erythropoietin administered to healthy men. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 27:1569-1576, 1995.
169. WOLFEL, E. E., B. M. GROVES, G. A. BROOKS, et al. Oxygen transport during steady-state submaximal exercise in chronic hypoxia. J. Appl. Physiol. 70:1129-1136, 1991.
170. YOUNG, A. J. Energy substrate utilization during exercise in extreme environments. In: Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, K. B. Pandolf and J. O. Hollozsy (Ed.). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1990, pp. 65-117.
171. 2max at high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 81:252-259, 1996.
172. YOUNG, A. J., M. N. SAWKA, M. N. QUIGLEY, et al. Role of thermal factors on aerobic capacity improvements with endurance training. J. Appl. Physiol. 75:49-54, 1993.
173. YOUNG, A. J. and P. M. YOUNG. Human acclimatization to high terrestrial altitude. In: Human Performance Physiology and Environmental Medicine at Terrestrial Extremes, K. B. Pandolf, M. N. Sawka, and R. R. Gonzalez (Ed.). Indianapolis: Benchmark Press, 1988, pp. 497-543.