Community-acquired pneumonia: Risk factors and specific causes

Journal of Respiratory Diseases

Volumn 21, Issue 7, 2000, Pages 457-468

  Lynch III, Joseph P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CEFOTAXIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CHLORAMPHENICOL DERIVATIVE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; MACROLIDE; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE; VANCOMYCIN;

CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; COMMUNICABLE DISEASE; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ELDERLY CARE; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; HUMAN TISSUE; PENICILLIN RESISTANCE; PNEUMONIA; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIA;

EID: 0033942117     PISSN: 0194259X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Bartlett J, Mundy L. Community-acquired pneumonia.N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1618-1623.
2. Marrie T. Community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:501-515.
3. Marrie T, Peeling R, Fine M, et al. Ambulatory patients with community-acquired pneumonia: the frequency of atypical agents and clinical course.Am J Med. 1996;101:508-515.
4. Morris T. Community-acquired pneumonia: epidemiology, etiology, treatment Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1998;12:723-735.
5. Fine M, Auble T, Yealy D, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:243-250.
6. Marston B, Plouffe J, File TJ, et al. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Results of a population-based active surveillance study in Ohio. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1709-1718.
7. Fein A, Niederman M. Guidelines for the initial management of community-acquired pneumonia: savory recipe or cookbook for disaster?Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995; 152:1149-1153.
8. Niederman MS, Bass JB, Campbell GD, et al. Guidelines for the initial management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia: diagnosis, assessment and severity and initial antimicrobial therapy.Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148:1418-1426.
9. Fine M, Smith M, Carson C, et al. Prognosis and outcomes of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. A meta-analysis. JAMA. 1995;274:134-141.
10. Bartlett J, Breiman R, Mandell L, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in adults: guidelines for management.Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:811-838.
11. Gleason PP, Kapoor WN, Stone RA, et al. Medical outcomes and antimicrobial costs with the use of the American Thoracic Society guidelines for outpatients with community-acquired pneumonia.JAMA 1997;278:32-39.
12. Feldman C. Severe community-acquired pneumonia.Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1997;3:98-104.
13. Hirani N, Macfarlane J. Impact of management guidelines on the outcome of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Thorax. 1997;52:17-21.
14. Lieberman D, Schlaeffer F, Boldur I, et al. Multiple pathogens in adult patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia: a one year prospective study of 346 consecutive patients. Thorax. 1996;51:179-184.
15. Ruiz-Gonzales A, Falguera M, Nogues A, et al. Is Streptococcus pneumoniae the leading cause of pneumonia of unknown etiology? A microbiologic study of lung aspirates in consecutive patients with community-acquired pneumonia.Am J Med. 1999;106:385-390.
16. Neill AM, Martin IR, Weir R, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia: aetiology and usefulness of severity criteria on admissionT.horax. 1996;51:1010-1016.
17. File TM Jr, Tan JS. Incidence, etiologic patterns, and diagnostic testing of community-acquired pneumonia. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1997;3:89-97.
18. Ishida T, Hashimoto T, Arita M, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients. A 3-year prospective study in Japan.Chest. 1998;114:1588-1593.
19. Fiore A, Nuorti J, Levine O, et al. Epidemic legionnaires' disease two decades later: old sources, new diagnostic methods.Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:426-433.
20. Lieberman D, Schlaeffer F, Porath A. Community-acquired pneumonia in old age: a prospective study of 91 patients admitted from home.Age Ageing. 1997;26:69-75.
21. Stout J, Yu V. Legionellosis.N Engl J Med. 1997;337:682-686.
22. Straus W, Plouffe J, File TM Jr, et al. Risk factors for domestic acquisition of legionnaires disease. Ohio Legionnaires Disease Group. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:1685-1692.
23. Sopena N, Sabria-Leal M, Pedro-Botet M, et al. Comparative study of the clinical presentation of Legionella pneumonia and other community-acquired pneumonias. Chest. 1998;113:1195-1200.
24. Mundy L, Auwaerter P, Oldach D, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia: impact of immune status.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152:1309-1315.
25. Farley M, Stephens D, Brachman PJ, et al. Invasive Hemophilus influenzae disease in adults: a prospective, population-based surveillance. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:806-812.
26. Torres A, Dorca J, Zalacajn R, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a Spanish multicenter study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;154:1456-1461.
27. Finegold SM. Aspiration pneumonia.Rev Infect Dis. 1991;13(suppl 9):S737-S742.
28. Wallace J, Hansen J, Lavanage L, et al. Respiratory disease trends in the pulmonary complications of HIV infectionAm J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:72-80.
29. Boschini A, Smacchia C, Di Fine M, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in a cohort of former injection drug users with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection: incidence, etiologies, and clinical aspectsClin Infect Dis. 1996;23:107-113.
30. Janssens J, Gauthey L, Hermann F, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in older patients. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44:539-544.
31. Fine M, Stone R, Singer D, et al. Processes and outcomes of care for patients with community-acquired pneumoniaArch Intern Med. 1999;159:970-980.
32. Murphy T. Branhamella catarrhalis: epidemiological and clinical aspects of a human respiratory tract pathogen.Thorax. 1998; 53: 124-128.
33. Von Hertzen L, Alakarppa H, Koskinen R, et al. Chlamydia pneumonia infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.Epidemiol Infect. 1997;118:155-164.
34. Riquelme R, Torres A, El-Ebiary M, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly: a multivariate analysis of risk and prognostic factors. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;154:1450-1455.
35. Kauppinen M, Herva E, Kujula P. The etiology of community-acquired pneumonia among hospitalized patients during aChlamydia pneumoniae epidemic in Finland.J Infect Dis. 1995;172:1330-1335.
36. File TM Jr, Plouffe JF Jr, Breiman RF, Skelton SK. Clinical characteristics ofChlamydia pneumoniae infection as the sole cause of community-acquired pneumonia.Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:426-428.
37. Marrie T, Blanchard W. A comparison of nursing home-acquired pneumonia patients with community-acquired pneumonia and nursing home patients without pneumoniaJ Am Geriatr Soc. 1997;45:50-55.
38. Metlay J, Schulz R, Li Y, et al. Influence of age on symptoms at presentation in patients with community-acquired pneumonia.Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1453-1459.
39. Lieberman D. Atypical pathogen pneumonia. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1997;3:111-115.
40. Meehan T, Fine M, Krunaholz H, et al. Quality of care, process, and outcomes in elderly patients with pneumonia JAMA. 1997; 278:2080-2084.
41. Rello J, Rodriquez R, Jubert R, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly: epidemiology and prognosis. Study group for severe community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:723-728.
42. Venkatesan P, Gladman J, MacFarlane J, et al. A hospital study of community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly.Thorax. 1990;45: 254-258.
43. Verghese A, Berk S. Bacterial pneumonia in the elderly.Medicine. 1983;62:271-285.
44. Ewig S, Kleinfeld T, Bauer T, et al. Comparative validation of prognostic rules for community-acquired pneumonia in an elderly population. Eur Respir J. 1999;14:370-375.
45. Koivula I, Stan M, Makela P. Risk factors for pneumonia in the elderly.Am J Med. 1994;96:313-320.
46. Kikuchi R, Watabe N, Konno T, et al. High incidence of silent aspiration in elderly patients with community-acquired pneumonia.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:152-253.
47. Troy C, Peeling R, Ellis A, et alChlamydia pneumoniae as a new source of infectious outbreaks in nursing homes.JAMA. 1997; 277:1214-1218.
48. Houston M, Silverstein M, Suman V. Risk factors for 30-day mortality in elderly patients with lower respiratory tract infection: community-based study. Arch Intern Med. 1997; 157:2190-2195.
49. Muder R, Brennen C, Swenson D, et al. Pneumonia in a long-term care facility. A prospective study of outcome. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:2365-2370.
50. Grossman R, Campbell D, Landis S, et al. Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly: the role of cefepime, a fourth-generation cephalosporinJ Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43:549-554.
51. Zervos M, Nelson M, and the Cefepime Study Group. Cefepime versus ceftriaxone for empiric treatment of hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia.Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:729-733.
52. Delegau J, Guay D, Straub K, et al. Effectiveness of oral antibiotic treatment in nursing home-acquired pneumonia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1995;43:245-251.
53. Nuorti J, Butler J, Crutcher J, et al. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant pneumococcal pneumonia and bacteremia among unvaccinated nursing home residentsN Engl J Med. 1998;338:1861-1868.
54. Peterson PR, Stein D, Guay DR, et al. Prospective study of lower respiratory tract infections in an extended-care nursing home program: potential role of oral ciprofloxacin. Am J Med. 1988;85:164-171.
55. Baril L, Astagneau P, Nguyen J, et al. Pyogenic bacterial pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected inpatients: a clinical, radiological, microbiological, and epidemiological study. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:964-971.
56. Burack J, Hahn J, Saint-Maurice D, et al. Microbiology of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia in persons with and at risk for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Am J Med. 1994;154:2589-2596.
57. Hirschtick RE, Glassroth J, Jordan MC, et al. Bacterial pneumonia in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. N Engl J Med 1995;333:845-851.
58. Meynard J, Barbut F, Blum L, et al. Risk factors for isolation ofStreptococcus pneumoniae with decreased susceptibility to penicillin G from patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus.Clin Infect Dis. 1996; 22:437-440.
59. Falco V, Fernandez de Sevilla T, Alegre J, et al. Bacterial pneumonia in HIV-infected patients: a prospective study of 68 episodesEur Respir J. 1994;7:235-239.
60. Magnenat J, Nicod L, Auckenthaler R, et al. Mode of presentation and diagnosis of bacterial pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients.Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991;144:917-922.
61. Steinhart R, Reingold A, Taylor F, et al. Invasive Hemophilus influenzae infections in men with HIV infection.JAMA. 1992;268: 3350-3352.
62. Cordero E, Pachon J, Rivera A, et al.Hemophilus influenzae pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patientsClin Infect Dis. 2000;30:461-465.
63. Baron A, Hollander H. Pseudomonas aeruginosa bronchopulmonary infection in late human immunodeficiency virus disease. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148:992-996.
64. Ewig S, Ruiz M, Mensa J, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Assessment of severity criteria.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:1102-1108.
65. Almirall J, Mesalles E, Klamburg J, et al. Prognostic features of pneumonia requiring admission to the intensive care unitChest. 1995;107:511-516.
66. Georges H, Leroy O, Vandenbussche C, et al. Epidemiological features and prognosis of severe community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 1999; 25:198-206.
67. Leroy O, Santre C, Beuscart C, et al. A five-year study of severe community-acquired pneumonia with emphasis on prognosis in patients admitted to an intensive care unitIntensive Care Med. 1995;21:24-31.
68. Torres A, Serra-Battles J, Ferrer A. Severe community-acquired pneumonia: epidemiology and prognostic factors. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991;114:312-318.
69. Rello J, Quintana E, Ausina V, et al. A three-year study of severe community acquired pneumonia with emphasis on outcome. Chest. 1993;103:232-235.
70. Tan Y, Khoo K, Chin S, et al. Aetiology and outcome of severe community-acquired pneumonia in SingaporeEur Respir J. 1998; 12:113-115.
71. Leroy O, Devos P, Guery B, et al. Simplified prediction rule for prognosis of patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia in ICUs.Chest. 1999;116:157-165.
72. San Pedro G, Campbell GJ. Limitations of diagnostic testing in the initial management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Infect. 1997;12:300-307.
73. File T, Segreti J, Dunbar L, et al. A multicenter, randomized study comparing the efficacy and safety of intravenous and/or oral levofloxacin versus ceftriaxone and/or cefuroxime axetil in treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia.Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41:1965-1972.
74. Chalasani N, Valdecanas M, Gopal A, et al. Clinical utility of blood cultures in adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia without defined underlying risks. Chest. 1995;108:932-936.
75. Kashuba A, Ballow C.Legionella urinary antigen testing: potential impact on diagnosis and antibiotic therapy.Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996;24:129-139.
76. Rahav G, Toledano Y, Engelhard D, et al. Invasive pneumococcal infections: a comparison between adults and childrenMedicine. 1997;76:295-303.
77. Hofinann J, Cetron M, Farley M, et al. The prevalence of drug-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae in Atlanta.N Engl J Med. 1995; 333:481-486.
78. Pallares R, Linares J, Vadillo M, et al. Resistance to penicillin and cephalosporin and mortality from severe pneumococcal pneumonia in Barcelona, Spain.N Engl J Med. 1995;333:474-480.
79. Ewig S, Ruiz M, Torres A, et al. Pneumonia acquired in the community through drug-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:1835-1842.
80. Doern G, Pfaller M, Jugler K, et al. Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among respiratory tract isolates ofStreptococcus pneumoniae in North America: 1997 results from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27:764-770.
81. Doern G, Brueggemann A, Blocker M. et al. Clonal relationships among high-level penicillin resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27: 757-761.
82. Thornsberry C, Ogilvie P, Kahn J, Mauriz Y. Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis in the United States in the 1996-97 respiratory season. The Laboratory Investigator GroupDiagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1997;29:249-257.
83. Butler J, Hofinan J, Cetron M, et al. The continued emergence of drug-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: an update from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Pneumococcal Sentinel Surveillance SystemJ Infect Dis. 1996;174: 986-993.
84. Appelbaum P. Epidemiology and in vitro susceptibility of drug-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae. J Pediatr Infect Dis. 1996;15: 932-939.
85. Thornsberry C, Ogilvie PT, Holley HP Jr, Sahm DF. Survey of susceptibilities ofStreptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis isolates to 26 antimicrobial agents: a prospective U.S. study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999; 43:2612-2623.
86. Spika J, Facklam R, Plikaytis B, et al. Antimicrobial resistance ofStreptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 1979-1987.J Infect Dis. 1991;163:1273-1278.
87. Schuchat A, Robinson K, Wenger J, et al. Bacterial meningitis in the United States in 1995. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:970-976.
88. Doern G, Brueggemann A, Holley HJ, et al. Antimicrobial resistance ofStreptococcus pneumoniae recovered from outpatients in the United States during the winter months of 1994-1995: results of a 30-center National Surveillance StudyAntimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996;40:1208-1213.
89. Corso A, Severina EP, Petruk VF, et al. Molecular characterization of penicillin resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates causing respiratory disease in the United States. Microb Drug Resist. 1998;4:325-337.
90. Moreno S, Garcia-Leoni ME, Cercenado E, et al. Infections caused by erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: incidence, risk factors, and response to therapy in a prospective study.Clin Infect Dis. 1995; 20:1195-1200.
91. Louie M, Louie L, Papia G, et al. Molecular analysis of the genetic variation among penicillin-susceptible and penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes in Canada. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:892-900.
92. Tomasz A, Corso A, Severina EP, et al. Molecular epidemiological characterization of penicillin-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae invasive pediatric isolates recovered in six Latin-American countries: an overview. PAHO/Rockefeller University Workshop. Pan American Health Organization.Microb Drug Resist. 1998;4:195-207.
93. Hoefnagels-Schuormans A, van Elders J, van Lierde S, et al. Increase in penicillin resistance rates in Belgium due to clonal spread of a penicillin-resistant 23PStreptococcus pneumoniae strain. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999;18:120-125.
94. Siegel RE. The significance of serum vs tissue levels of antibiotics in the treatment of penicillin-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae and community-acquired pneumonia: are we looking in the wrong place?Chest. 1999;116:535-538.
95. Jacobs M. Drug-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae: rational antibiotic choicesAm J Med. 1999;106(suppl 5A):19S-25S.
96. Friedland IR, McCracken GH Jr. Management of infections caused by antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:377-382.
97. Clavo-Sanchez A, Giron-Gonzalez J, Lopez-Prieto D, et al. Multivariate analysis of risk factors for infection due to penicillin-resistant and multidrug-resistantStreprococcus pneumoniae: a multicenter study.Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1052-1059.
98. Igugman F, Feldraan C. The clinical relevance of antibiotic resistance in the management of pneumococcal pneumonia.Clin Pulm Med. 1997;4:190-193.
99. Goldstein F, Garen J. 30 years of penicillin-resistantStreptococcus pneumoniae: myth or reality?Lancet. 1997;350:233-234.
100. Butler J, Cetron M. Pneumococcal drug resistance: the new special enemy of old age. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:730-735.
101. Ednie LM, Visalli MA, Jacobs MR, Appelbaum PC. Comparative activities of clarithromycin, erythromycin, and azithromycin against penicillin-susceptible and penicillin-resistant pneumococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996;40:1950-1952.
102. Shortridge VD, Doern GV, Brueggemann AB, et al. Prevalence of macrolide resistances in Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from a multicenter antibiotic resistance surveillance study conducted in the United States in 1994-1995. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:1186-1188.
103. Plouffe J, The Franklin County Pneumonia Study Group. Levofloxacin in vitro activity against bacteremic isolates ofStreptococcus pneumoniae. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996;25:43-45.
104. Ortqvist A, Valtonen M, Cars O, et al. Oral empiric treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. A multicenter, double-blind, randomized study comparing sparfloxacin with raxithromycin. Chest. 1996; 110:1499-1506.
105. Olsson-Liljequist B, Hoffman B, Hedlund J. Activity of trovafloxacin against blood isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Sweden. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect. 1996;15:671-675.
106. Brueggemann AB, Kugler KC, Doern GV. In vitro activity of Bay 12-8039, a novel 8-methoxyquinolone, compared to activities of six fluoroquinolones againstStreptococcus pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41:1594-1597.
107. Plouffe J, Breiman R, Facklam R. Bacteremia withStreptococcus pneumoniae: implications for therapy and preventionJAMA. 1996;275:194-198.
108. Jorgensen J, Weigel L, Ferraro M, et al. Activities of newer fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates including those with mutations in thegyrA, parC, and parE loci. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother. 1999;43:329-334.
109. Acar J, Goldstein F. Trends in bacterial resistance to fluoroquinolonesClin Infect Dis. 1997;24(suppl 1):S67-S73.
110. Chenoweth C, Lynch JP III. Antimicrobial resistance: implications for managing respiratory infections. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1997; 3:159-169.
111. Chen DK, McGeer A, DeAzavedo JC, et al. Decreased susceptibility ofStreptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in CanadaN Engl J Med. 1999;341:233-239.
112. Mundy L, Oldach D, Auwaerter P, et al. Implications for macrolide treatment in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1998; 113:1201-1206.
113. Kauppinen M, Saikku P, Kujala P, et al. Clinical picture of community-acquiredChlamydia pneumoniae pneumonia requiring hospital treatment: a comparison between chlamydial and pneumococcal pneumonia. Thorax. 1996;51:185-189.
114. Edelstein P. Antimicrobial chemotherapy for legionnaires' disease: a reviewClin Infect Dis. 1995;21(suppl 3):S265-S276.
115. El-Ebiary M, Sarmiento X, Torres A, et al. Prognostic factors of severeLegionella pneumonia requiring admission to ICU.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:1467-1472.
116. Roig J, Aguilar X, Ruiz J, et al. Comparative study of Legionella pneumophila and other nosocomial-acquired pneumonias. Chest. 1991;99:344-350.
117. Roig J, Domingo C, Morera J. Legionnaires' disease.Chest. 1994;105:1817-1825.
118. Pedro-Botet M, Sbria-Leal M, Here M, et al. Nosocomial and community-acquiredLegionella pneumonia: clinical comparative analysis. Eur Respir J. 1995;8:1929-1933.
119. Marston B, Lipman H, Breiman R. Surveillance for legionnaire's disease: risk factors for morbidity and mortalityArch Intern Med. 1994;154:2417-2422.
120. Plouffe J, File T, Breiman R, et al. Reevaluation of the definition of legionnaire's disease: use of the urine antigen assayClin Infect Dis. 1995;20:1286-1291.
121. Health C, Grove D, Looks D. Delay in appropriate therapy ofLegionella pneumonia associated with increased mortalityEur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996;15:286-290.
122. Edelstein E. Antimicrobial chemotherapy for legionnaires' disease: time for a change. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:328-330.
123. Charles L, Segreti J. Choosing the right macrolide antibiotic: a guide to selection. Drugs. 1997;53:349-357.
124. Wood G, Johnson B, McCormack J. Moraxella catarrhalis: pathogenic significance in respiratory tract infections treated by community practitioners.Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22: 632-636.
125. Boyars MC, Mercado AC. Community-acquired pneumonia: update on antibiotic therapy. Consultant. 1998;38:1659-1676.