Carbohydrate and exercise

Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care

Volumn 2, Issue 6, 1999, Pages 515-520

  Burke, Louise M ^a   Hawley, John A ^b  

^a AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF SPORT   (Australia)

^b RMIT UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; FATTY ACID;

CARBOHYDRATE DIET; CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; EXERCISE; HUMAN; METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; CARBOHYDRATES; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; EXERCISE; FATTY ACIDS; HUMANS;

EID: 0033219244     PISSN: 13631950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00075197-199911000-00015     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. Hawley JA, Hopkins WG. Aerobic glycolytic and aerobic lipolytic power systems: a new paradigm with implications for endurance and ultraendurance events. Sports Med 1995; 19:240-250.
2. Hargreaves M. Metabolic responses to carbohydrate ingestion: effect on exercise performance. In: Perspectives in exercise science and sports medicine, Vol 12: The metabolic basis of performance in exercise and sport. Lamb DR, Murray R (editors). Cooper Publishing Company, Carmel, IN, USA; 1999. pp. 93-124. An excellent summary of the effects of carbohydrate intake before, during and after exercise on carbohydrate availability and exercise performance. This paper was delivered at a scientific meeting; an interesting feature is the inclusion of a discussion within the group of renowned exercise scientists to whom this paper was presented.
3. American Dietetic Association and Canadian Dietetic Association. Position stand on nutrition for physical fitness and athletic performance for adults. J Am Diet Assoc 1993; 93:691-696.
4. New Zealand Dietetic Association. Position paper update: nutritional considerations for physically active adults and athletes in New Zealand. J NZ Diet Assoc 1998; 52:5-13.
5. Hopkins WG, Hawley JA, Burke LM. Design and analysis of research on sport performance enhancement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31:472-485. A paper presenting provocative ideas on the research design needed to test whether interventions can improve performance by the small margins that might be useful in competitive sport.
6. Holloszy JO, Khort WM, Hansen PA. The regulation of carbohydrate and fat metabolism during and after exercise. Front Biosci 1998; 3:1011-1027. An excellent and comprehensive review article examining the regulation of glucose and glycogen utilization by skeletal muscle during aerobic exercise.
7. Brooks GA, Mercier J. Balance of carbohydrate and lipid utilization during exercise: the 'crossover' concept. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76:2253-2261.
8. Romijn JA, Coyle EF, Sidossis LA, Gastaldelli A, Horowitz JA, Endert E, Wolfe RR. Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration. Am J Physiol 1993; 265:E380-E391.
9. Gollnick PD. Selective glycogen depletion in human muscle fibers after exercise of varying intensity and at varying pedalling rates. J Physiol 1974; 241:45-57.
10. Bergman BC, Butterfield GE, Wolfel EE, Casazza GA, Lopaschuk GD, Brooks GA. Evaluation of exercise and training on muscle lipid metabolism. Am J Physiol 1999; 276:E106-E117. This study evaluates the effects of aerobic exercise training on fuel substrate selection during exercise. The major finding is that training does not result in an enhanced fatty acid and intramuscular triglyceride utilization, and that carbohydrate fuels predominate during moderate and high work rates.
11. Greiwe JS, Hickner RC, Hansen PA, Racette SB, Chen MM, Holloszy JO. Effects of endurance exercise training on muscle glycogen accumulation. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87:222-226. This study shows that endurance exercise training markedly enhances the muscle glycogen supercompensation response to carbohydrate ingestion after glycogen-depleting exercise.
12. Bergman BC, Brooks GA. Respiratory gas-exchange ratios during graded exercise in fed and fasted trained and untrained men. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86:479-487. Dietary manipulation before exercise in trained and untrained men was used to evaluate the hypotheses that training-diet interaction influences lipid oxidation during exercise. Substrate selection at moderate to high work rates was dominated by carbohydrate oxidation, and was remarkably resistant to alteration.
13. Hawley JA, Schabort EJ, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. Carbohydrate-loading and exercise performance. Sports Med 1997; 24:73-81.
14. Helge JW, Richter EA, Kiens B. Interaction of training and diet on metabolism and endurance during exercise in man. J Physiol 1996; 492:293-306.
15. Hawley JA, Bosch AN, Weltan SM, Dennis SC, Noakes TD. Glucose kinetics during prolonged exercise in euglycemic and hyperglycemic subjects. Pflugers Arch 1994; 426:378-386.
16. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61:165-172.
17. Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers AJM, Stegen HCH, Gijsen AP, Brouns F, Saris WHM. Carbohydrate ingestion can completely suppress endogenous glucose production during exercise. Am J Physiol 1999; 276:E672-E683. The ingestion of carbohydrate during low-intensity exercise was shown to suppress completely endogenous glucose production (i.e. hepatic glycogenolysis) but had no effect on muscle glycogen utilization.
18. Horowitz JF, Mora-Rodriguez R, Byerley LO, Coyle EF. Lipolytic suppression following carbohydrate ingestion limits fat oxidation during exercise. Am J Physiol 1997; 273:E768-E775.
19. Coyle EF, Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers AJM, Saris WHM. Fatty acid oxidation is directly regulated by carbohydrate metabolism during exercise. Am J Physiol 1997; 273:E268-E275.
20. Costill DL, Sherman WM, Fink WJ, Maresh C, Witten M, Miller JM. The role of dietary carbohydrates in muscle glycogen resynthesis after strenuous running. Am J Clin Nutr 1981; 34:1831-1836.
21. Bergstrom J, Hermansen L, Hultman E, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol Scand 1967; 71:140-150.
22. Sherman WM, Costill DL, Fink WJ, Miller JM. Effect of diet-exercise manipulation on muscle glycogen and its subsequent utilisation during performance. Int J Sports Med 1981; 2:114-118.
23. Balsom PD, Wood K, Olsson P, Ekblom B. Carbohydrate intake and multiple sprint sports: with special reference to football (soccer). Int J Sports Med 1999; 20:48-52. High carbohydrate diet before simulated soccer match play increased the amount of high-intensity play undertaken by professional soccer players compared with a dietary preparation producing moderate glycogen stores.
24. Akerman C, Jacobs I, Rasmussen M, Karlsson J. Diet and muscle glycogen concentration in relation to physical performance in Swedish elite ice hockey players. Int J Sport Nutr 1996; 6:272-284.
25. Abt GA, Zhou S, Weatherby RP. The effect of a high-carbohydrate diet on the skill performance of midfield soccer players after intermittent treadmill exercise. J Sci Med Sport 1998; 1:203-212. A modified carbohydrate loading preparation did not improve the ability of soccer players to undertake shooting and dribbling skills, before and after completing a 60 min treadmill protocol designed to mimic game requirements. The researchers acknowledge that the treadmill protocol may have failed to induce a degree of glycogen depletion or fatigue large enough to cause a significant fall in skill performance.
26. Wright DA, Sherman WM, Dernbach AR. Carbohydrate feedings before, during, or in combination improve cycling endurance performance. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71:1082-1088.
27. Neufer PD, Costill DL, Flynn MG, Kirwan JP, Mitchell JB, Jernbach A. Improvements in exercise performance: effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:983-988.
28. Sherman WM, Brodowicz G, Wright DA, et al. Effects of 4 h preexercise carbohydrate feedings on cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21:598-604.
29. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Lowe RC, Walters TJ. Substrate usage during prolonged exercise following a preexercise meal. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59:429-433.
30. Foster C, Costill DL, Fink WJ. Effects of pre-exercise feedings on endurance performance. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11:1-5.
31. Hawley JA, Burke LM. Effect of meal frequency and timing on physical performance. Br J Nutr. 1997; 77 (Suppl.):S91-S103.
32. Thomas DE, Brotherhood JR, Brand JC. Carbohydrate feeding before exercise: effect of glycemic index. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12:180-186.
33. 2max) compared with a meal of moderate glycaemic index carbohydrate. Plasma glucose levels were better maintained at the end of 2 h by the low glycaemic index meal.
34. Febbraio MA, Stewart KL. CHO feeding before prolonged exercise: effect of glycemic index on muscle glycogenolysis and exercise performance. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81:1115-1120.
35. 2max) followed by a 15-min time trial produced fewer alterations to blood glucose, insulin and FFA levels than the ingestion of an equivalent amount of a high glycaemic index carbohydrate meal. However, there were no differences in the work completed in the time trial.
36. Thomas DE, Brotherhood JR, Brand Miller J. Plasma glucose levels after prolonged strenuous exercise correlate inversely with glycemic response to food consumed before exercise. Int J Sport Nutr 1994; 4:361-373. .
37. 2max.
38. Burke LM, Claassen A, Hawley JA, Noakes TD. Carbohydrate intake during prolonged cycling minimizes effect of glycemic index of pre-exercise meal. J Appl Physiol 1998; 85:2220-2228. Substantial carbohydrate intake during exercise minimized any metabolic differences arising from the pre-event meal. There were no metabolic or performance differences between trials, showing that the glycaemic index of the pre-event meal is not important. Athletes should be advised to choose carbohydrate foods for pre-event meals according to individual preferences and past experiences rather than glycaemic index alone.
39. Chryssanthopoulos C, Williams C. Pre-exercise carbohydrate meal and endurance running capacity when carbohydrates are ingested during exercise. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18:543-548.
40. Tsintzas OK, Williams C, Boobis L, Greenhaff P. Carbohydrate ingestion and single muscle fibre glycogen metabolism during prolonged running in men. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81:801-809.
41. Bosch AN, Dennis SC, Noakes TD. Influence of carbohydrate loading on fuel substrate turnover and oxidation during prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74:1921-1927.
42. Hawley JA, Dennis SC, Noakes TD. Oxidation of carbohydrate ingested during prolonged endurance exercise. Sports Med 1992; 14:27-42.
43. American College of Sports Medicine. Position stand: exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28:i-viii.
44. McConell G, Kloot K, Hargreaves M. Effect of carbohydrate ingestion late vs throughout prolonged exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28:1300-1304.
45. Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Metabolism and performance following carbohydrate ingestion late in exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21:59-65.
46. Muckle DS. Glucose syrup ingestion and team performance in soccer. Br J Sports Med 1973; 7:340-343.
47. Vergauwen L, Brouns F, Hespel P. Carbohydrate supplementation improves stroke performance in tennis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30:1289-1295. Carbohydrate intake during 2 h of tennis play attenuated the increase in error rate and the drop in velocity-precision as measured by a special tennis performance test.
48. Zeederberg C, Leach L, Lambert EV, Noakes TD, Dennis SC, Hawley JA. The effect of carbohydrate ingestion on the motor skill of soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr 1996; 6:348-355.
49. Below PR, Mora-Rodriguez J, Gonzalez-Alonso, Coyle EF. Fluid and carbohydrate ingestion independently improve performance during 1 h of intense exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27:200-210.
50. Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Wagenmakers AJM, Saris WHM. Carbohydrate-electrolyte feedings improve 1 h time trial performance. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18:125-129.
51. Stafford-Millard M, Rosskopf LB, Snow TK, Hinson BT. Water versus carbohydrate-electrolyte ingestion before and during a 15-km run in the heat. Int J Sport Nutr 1997; 7:26-38.
52. Kovacs EMR, Stegen JH, Brouns F. Effect of caffeinated drinks on substrate metabolism, caffeine excretion and performance. J Appl Physiol. 1998; 85:709-715.
53. Nieman DC, Nehlson-Cannarela SL, Fagoaga OR, Henson DA, Otter A, Davis JM, et al. Influence of mode and carbohydrate on the granulocyte and monocyte response to intensive, prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84:1252-1259.
54. Nieman DC, Nehlson-Cannarela SL, Fagoaga OR, Henson DA, Otter A, Davis JM, et al. Influence of mode and carbohydrate on the cytokine response to heavy exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998; 30:671-678.
55. Henson DA, Nieman DC, Blodgett AD, Butterworth DE, Otter A, et al. Influence of exercise mode and carbohydrate on the immune response to prolonged exercise. Int J Sport Nutr 1999; 9:213-228. A series of papers derived from a study of 2.5 h of running or cycling, with or without carbohydrate intake on various immune parameters. Carbohydrate intake attenuates the pertubations in plasma measures of immune factors, otherwise suggested to be indicative of post-exercise immunosuppression.
56. Burke LM, Collier GR, Hargreaves M. Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: effect of the glycemic index of carbohydrate feedings. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75:1019-1023.
57. Ivy JL, Katz AL, Cutler CL, Sherman WM, Coyle EF. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64:1480-1485.
58. Parkin JAM, Carey MF, Martin IK, Stojanovska L, Febbraio MA. Muscle glycogen storage following prolonged exercise: effect of timing of ingestion of high glycemic index food. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29:220-224.
59. Zawadzki KM, Yaspelkis BB, Ivy JL. Carbohydrate-protein complex increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72:1854-1859.
60. Tarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, Phillips SM, MacDougall JD. Carbohydrate loading and metabolism during exercise in men and women. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78:1360-1368.
61. Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA. Influence of differing macronutrient intakes on muscle glycogen resynthesis after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84:890-896.