Environmental oestrogens and human reproductive cancers

Endocrine-Related Cancer

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 69-96

  Miller, W R ^a   Sharpe, R M ^b  

^a WESTERN GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

4,4' ISOPROPYLIDENEDIPHENOL; ALKYLPHENOL; CARCINOGEN; CHLORPHENOTANE; DIOXIN; ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL; ESTROGEN DERIVATIVE; INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL; PESTICIDE; PHTHALIC ACID ESTER; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL DERIVATIVE; TRIBUTYLTIN;

BREAST CANCER; CHEMICAL CARCINOGENESIS; ENDOMETRIUM CANCER; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HUMAN; OVARY CANCER; PESTICIDE SPRAYING; PROSTATE CANCER; REVIEW; TESTIS CANCER;

EID: 0031860951     PISSN: 13510088     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1677/erc.0.0050069     Document Type: Review

References (229)

1. Adami H, Bergstrom R, Mohner M, Zatonski W, Storm H, Ekbom A, Tretli S, Teppo L, Ziegler H, Rahu M, Gurevicus R & Stengrevics A 1994 Testicular cancer in nine northern European countries. International Journal of Cancer 59 33-38.
2. Adlercreutz H 1995 Phytoestrogens: epidemiology and a possible role in cancer protection. Environmental Health Perspectives 103 103-112.
3. Adlercreutz H, Mousavi Y, Clark J, Hockerstedt K, Hamalainen E, Wahala K, Makela T & Hase T 1992 Dietary phytoestrogens and cancer: in vitro and in vivo studies. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 41 331-337.
4. Adlercreutz H, Goldin BR, Gorbach SL, Hockerstedt KAV, Watanabe S, Hamalainen EK et al. 1995 Soybean phytoestrogen intake and cancer risk. Journal of Nutrition 125 757S-770S.
5. Ahlborg DG, Lipworth L, Titus-Ernstoff L, Hsieh C-C, Hanberg A, Baron J, Trichopoulos D & Adami H-O 1995 Organochlorine compounds in relation to breast cancer, endometrial cancer and endometriosis: an assessment of the biological and epidemiological evidence. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 25 463-531.
6. Ahlgren JD, Ellison N, Gottlieg RJ, Laluna F, Lokich JL, Sinclair PR, Ueno W, Wampler GL, Yeung KY, Alt D & Fryer JG 1993 Hormonal palliation of chemoresistant ovarian cancer: three phase II trials of the mid-Atlantic oncology program. Journal of Clinical Oncology 11 1957-1968.
7. Anon 1982 Anabolics in meat production. Lancet i 721-722.
8. Armstrong B & Doll R 1975 Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. International Journal of Cancer 15 617-631.
9. Arnold SF, Klotz DM, Collins BM, Vonier PM, Guillette LJ Jr & McLachlan JA 1996 Synergistic activation of estrogen receptor with combinations of environmental chemicals. Science 272 1489-1492.
10. Ashby J, Houthoff E, Kennedy SJ, Stevens J, Bars R, Jekat FW, Campbell P, van Miller J, Carpanini FM & Randall GLP 1997 The challenge posed by endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 164-169.
11. Barber HRK 1984 Cancers of breast, uterus and ovary. In Risk Factors and Multiple Cancer, pp 315-330. Ed BA Stoll. London: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
12. Barnes S, Grubbs C, Setchell KDR & Carlson J 1990 Soybeans inhibit mammary tumors in models of breast cancer. In Mutagens and Carcinogens in the Diet, pp 239-253. Ed M Pariza. New York: Alan R Liss.
13. Beral V 1987 The epidemiology of ovarian cancer. In Ovarian Cancer- the Way Ahead, pp 21-31. Eds F Sharp & WP Soutter. London: Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists.
14. Beral V, Bull D, Doll R, Key T, Peto R, Reeves G, Calle E E, Heath CW et al. 1997 Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy - collaborative reanalysis of data from fifty-one epidemiologic studies of 52 705 women with breast cancer and 108 411 women without breast cancer. Lancet 350 1047-1059.
15. Bertazzi PA, Pesatori AC, Consonni D, Tironi A, Landi MT & Zocchetti C 1993 Cancer incidence in a population accidentally exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Epidemiology 4 398-406.
16. Bicknell RJ, Herbison AE & Sumpter JP 1995 Oestrogenic activity of an environmentally persistent alkylphenol in the reproductive tract but not the brain of rodents. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 54 7-9.
17. Bitman J & Cecil HC 1970 Estrogenic activity of DDT analogs and polychlorinated biphenyls. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 18 1108-1112.
18. Bitman J, Cecil HC, Harris SJ & Fries GF 1968 Estrogenic activity of o,p′-DDT in the mammalian uterus and avian oviduct. Science 162 371-372.
19. Blamey RW & Dixon AR 1991 LHRH analogues. In Medical Management of Breast Cancer, pp 109-114. Eds TJ Powles & IE Smith. London: Dunitz.
20. Boyle P 1988 Epidemiology of breast cancer. Bailliere's Clinical Oncology 2 1-57.
21. Bradbury RB & White DE 1954 Estrogens and related substances in plants. Vitamins and Hormones 12 207-233.
22. Brotons JA, Oles-Serrano MF, Villalobos M & Olea N 1995 Xenoestrogens released from lacquer coatings in food cans. Environmental Health Perspectives 103 608-612.
23. Bryan GW, Gibbs PE, Hummerstone LG & Burt GR 1986 The decline of the gastropod Nucella lapillus around south-west England: evidence for the effect of tributyltin from antifouling paints. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 66 611-640.
24. Bulbrook RD, Moore JW, Clark GM, Wang DY, Millis RR & Hayward JL 1986 Relation between risk of breast cancer and bioavailability of estradiol in blood: prospective study in Guernsey. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 464 373-388.
25. Casagrande JT, Louie EW, Pike MC, Roy S, Ross RK & Henderson BE 1979 Incessant ovulation and ovarian cancer. Lancet 2 170.
26. Cassidy A, Bingham S & Setchell K 1994 Biological effects of isoflavones present in soy in premenopausal women: implications for the prevention of breast cancer. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60 333-340.
27. Chilvers CED & Deacon JM 1994 Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer 67 922-923.
28. Clark LB, Rosen RT, Hartman TG, Louis JB, Suffet IH, Lippincott RL & Rosen JD 1992 Determination of alkylphenol ethoxylates and their acetic acid derivatives in drinking water by particle beam liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Journal of Environmental and Analytical Chemistry 47 167-180.
29. Clark JW, Santosmoore A, Stevenson LE & Freckleton AR 1996 Effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitors on the proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines and proteins important in the ras signalling pathway. International Journal of Cancer 65 186-191.
30. Clarkson TB, Anthony MS & Hughes CL Jr 1995 Estrogenic soybean isoflavones and chronic disease: risks and benefits. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 6 11-16.
31. Colditz GA, Egan KM & Stampfer MJ 1993 Hormone replacement therapy and risk of breast cancer: results from epidemiologic studies. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 168 1473-1480.
32. Colerangle JB & Roy D 1996 Exposure of environmental estrogenic compound nonylphenol to Noble rats alters cell-cycle kinetics in the mammary gland. Endocrine 4 115-122.
33. Colerangle JB & Roy D 1997 Profound effects of the weak environmental estrogen-like chemical bisphenol-A on the growth of the mammary gland of Noble rats. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 60 153-160.
34. Colton T, Greenberg R, Noller K, Resseguie L, van Bennekom C, Heeren T & Zhang Y 1993 Breast cancer in mothers prescribed diethylstilbestrol in pregnancy. Journal of the American Medical Association 269 2069-2100.
35. Comas AP 1982 Precocious sexual development in Puerto Rico. Lancet i 1299-1300.
36. Constantinou A, Kiguchi K & Huberman E 1990 Induction of differentiation and strand breakage in human HL-60 and K-562 leukemia cells by genistein. Cancer Research 50 84-92.
37. Conte PF, Fraschini G & Drewinko B 1985 Estrogen induced expansion of the growth fraction in receptor negative human breast cancer. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 23 1169-1172.
38. Cramer DW, Hutchison GB, Welch WR, Scully RE & Ryan KJ 1983 Determinants of ovarian cancer risk. I. Reproductive experiences and family history. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 71 711-716.
39. Creasman WT 1993 Prognostic significance of hormone receptors in endometrial cancer. Cancer 71 1467-1470.
40. Cunha GR, Donjacour AA, Cooke PS, Mee S, Bigsby RM, Higgins SJ & Sugimura Y 1987 The endocrinology and developmental biology of the prostate. Endocrine Reviews 8 338-362.
41. Danzo BJ 1997 Environmental xenobiotics may disrupt normal endocrine function by interfering with the binding of physiological ligands to steroid receptors and binding proteins. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 294-301.
42. Dao TL, Sinha DK, Nemoto T & Patel J 1982 Effects of estrogens and progesterone on cellular replication of human breast tumours. Cancer Research 42 359-362.
43. Davis VL, Couse JF, Goulding EH, Power SGA, Eddy EM & Korach KS 1994 Aberrant reproductive phenotypes evident in transgenic mice overexpressing the wild-type mouse estrogen receptor. Endocrinology 135 379-386.
44. Debruyne F 1989 Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogs alone in the treatment of advanced disease. Hormone Research 32 62-65.
45. Dees C, Askari M, Foster JS, Ahamed S & Wimalasena J 1997 DDT mimics estradiol stimulation of breast cancer cells to enter the cell cycle. Molecular Carcinogenesis 18 107-114.
46. De Waard F, Cornelis JP, Aoki K & Yoshida M 1977 Breast cancer incidence according to weight and height in two cities in the Netherlands and in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. Cancer 40 1269-1276.
47. Dewailly E, Dodin S, Verreault R, Ayotte P, Sauve L & Morin J 1994a High organochlorine body burden in women with estrogen receptor positive breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 86 232-234.
48. Dewailly E, Yotte PA & Brisson J 1994b Protective effect of breast feeding on breast cancer and body burden of carcinogenic organochlorines. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 86 803.
49. Dewailly E, Ayotte P & Dodin S 1997 Could the rising levels of estrogen receptor in breast cancer be due to estrogenic pollutants? Journal of the National Cancer Institute 89 888.
50. Dodds EC & Lawson W 1936 Synthetic oestrogenic agents without the phenanthrene nucleus. Nature 137 996.
51. Dodds EC & Lawson W 1938 Molecular structure in relation to oestrogenic activity. Compounds without a phenanthrene nucleus. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 125 222-232.
52. Edidin DV & Levitsky LL 1982 Prepubertal gynecomastia associated with estrogen-containing hair cream. American Journal of Diseases in Childhood 136 587-588.
53. Ekbom A, Hsieh C-C, Lipworth L, Wolk A, Ponten J, Adami H-O & Trichopoulos D 1996 Perinatal characteristics in relation to incidence and mortality from prostate cancer. British Medical Journal 313 337-341.
54. Ellis DV & Pattisina LA 1990 Widespread neogastropod imposex: a biological indicator of global TBT contamination. Marine Pollution Bulletin 21 248-253.
55. Environment Agency UK 1996 The identification and assessment of oestrogenic substances in sewage treatment works effluents. R & D Technical Summary Project 490 38.
56. Falck FY, Ricci A Jr, Wolff MS, Godbold J & Deckers J 1992 Pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyl residues in human breast lipids and their relation to breast cancer. Archives of Environmental Health 47 143-146.
57. Fara GM, Del Corvo G, Bernuzzi S, Bigatello A, Di Pietro C, Scaglioni S & Chiumello G 1979 Epidemic of breast enlargement in an Italian school. Lancet ii 295-297.
58. Fathalla MF 1971 Incessant ovulation - a factor in ovarian neoplasia? Lancet ii 163.
59. Finkelstein JS, McCully WF, MacLaughlin DT, Godine JE & Crowley WF Jr 1988 The mortician's mystery: gynecomastia and reversible hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in an embalmer. New England Journal of Medicine 318 961-965.
60. Folmar LC, Denslow ND, Rao V, Chow M, Crain DA, Enblom J, Marcino J & Guillette LJ Jr 1997 Vitellogenin induction and reduced serum testosterone concentrations in feral male carp (Cyprinus carpio) captured near a major metropolitan sewage treatment plant. Environmental Health Perspectives 104 1096-1101.
61. Fotsis T, Pepper M, Adlercreutz H, Fleischmann G, Hase T, Montesano R & Schweigerer L 1993 Genistein, a dietary- derived inhibitor of angiogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 90 2690-2694.
62. Fromm GL, Freedman RS, Fritsche HA, Atkinson EN & Scott W 1991 Sequentially administered ethinyl estradiol and medroxyprogesterone acetate in the treatment of refractory epithelial ovarian carcinoma in patients with positive estrogen receptors. Cancer 68 1885-1889.
63. Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C & Stampfer MJ 1996 Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 88 1118-1126.
64. Gellert RJ, Heinrichs WL & Swerdloff RS 1972 DDT homologues: estrogen-like effects on the vagina, uterus and pituitary of the rat. Endocrinology 91 1095-1100.
65. Godwin AK, Testa JR, Handel LM, Liu Z, Vanderveer L & Tracey PA 1992 Spontaneous transformation of rat ovarian surface epithelial cells: association with cytogenic changes and implications of repeated ovulation in the etiology of ovarian cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 84 592-601.
66. Gottswinter JM, Korth-Schultz S & Ziegler R 1984 Gynecomastia caused by estrogen containing hair lotion. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation 7 383-386.
67. Grady D, Rubin SM, Petitti DB, Fox CS, Black D, Ettinger B, Ernster VL & Cummings SR 1992 Hormone therapy to prevent disease and prolong life in postmenopausal women.
68. Gray LE Jr, Ostby J, Marshall R & Andrews J 1993 Reproductive and thyroid effects of low-level polychlorinated biphenyl (Arochlor 1254) exposure. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 20 288-294.
69. Greenberg ER, Barrett JA, Lanzall LL, Stevens M, Resseguie L, Burnside S, Neff RK, Neff RK, Young RH & Colton T 1984 Breast cancer in mothers given diethylstilbestrol in pregnancy. New England Journal of Medicine 312 1059-1060.
70. Hamon M, Fleet IR & Heap RB 1990 Comparison of oestrone sulphate concentrations in mammary secretions during lactogenesis and lactation in dairy ruminants. Journal of Dairy Research 57 419-422.
71. Hardell L, Lindstrom G, Liljegren G, Dahl P & Magnuson A 1996 Increased concentrations of octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in cases with breast cancer - results from a case-control study. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 5 351-357.
72. Harris CA, Henttu P, Parker MG & Sumpter JP 1997 The estrogenic activity of phthalate esters in vitro. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 802-811.
73. Hawkins RA & Miller WR 1988 Endogenous sex hormones in cancer development. In Endocrine Management of Cancer: Biological Cases, ch 5, pp 45-58. Ed BA Stoll. Basel: Karger.
74. Hawkins RA, Roberts MM & Forrest APM 1980 Oestrogen receptors and breast cancer: current status. British Journal of Surgery 67 153-169.
75. Hawrylewicz EJ, Huang HH & Blair WH 1991 Dietary soya bean isolate and methionine supplementation affect mammary tumour progression in rats. Journal of Nutrition 121 1693-1698.
76. Henderson BE, Bernstein L, Ross RK, Depue RH & Judd HL 1988 The early in utero oestrogen and testosterone environment of blacks and whites: potential effects on male offspring. British Journal of Cancer 57 216-218.
77. Hirayama T 1986 A large scale cohort study on cancer risks by diet - with special reference to the risk reducing effects of green-yellow vegetable consumption. In Diet, Nutrition and Cancer, pp 41-53. Eds Y Hayashi, M Nagao, T Sugimura, S Takayama, L Tomatis, LW Wattenberg & GN Wogan. Tokyo: Japanese Scientific Society Press.
78. Hirohata T, Shigematsu T, Nomura AMY & Horie A 1985 Occurrence of breast cancer in relation to diet and reproductive history. A case-control study in Fukuoka, Japan. National Cancer Institute Monographs 69 187-190.
79. Hoffman B & Evers P 1986 Anabolic agents with sex hormone-like activities: problems of residues. In Drug Residues in Animals, pp 111-146. Ed A Rico. London: Academic Press.
80. Holdsworth RJ, Heap RB, Booth JM & Hamon M 1982 A rapid direct radioimmunoassay for the measurement of oestrone sulphate in the milk of dairy cows and its use in pregnancy diagnosis. Journal of Endocrinology 95 7-12.
81. Howell A 1996 New endocrine treatments for breast cancer: biological and clinical aspects. Breast 5 170-174.
82. Huff JE, Lucier G & Tritscher A 1994 Carcinogenicity of TCDD: experimental, mechanistic and epidemiologic evidence. Annual Reviews of Pharmacology and Toxicology 34 343-372.
83. Huff JE, Boyd JA & Barrett JC 1996 Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Hormonal Carcinogenesis: Environmental Influences. New York: Wiley-Liss.
84. Huggins C & Hodges CV 1941 Studies on prostate cancer. The effect of castration, of estrogens, and of androgen injection on serum phosphatase in metastatic carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer Research 1 193-198.
85. Hunter DJ & Willett WC 1996 Nutrition and breast cancer. Cancer Causes and Control 7 56-68.
86. Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, Laden F, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willettt WC, Speizer FE & Wolff MS 1997 Plasma organochlorines levels and the risk of breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 337 1253-1258.
87. Iversen OH 1992 Is a high rate of cell proliferation carcinogenic in itself? Human Experimental Toxicology 11437-11441.
88. James VHT, Reed MJ & Folkerd EJ 1981 Studies of estrogen metabolism in postmenopausal women with cancer. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 15 235-245.
89. Jansen HT, Cooke PS, Porcelli J, Liu T-C & Hansen LG 1993 Estrogenic and anti-estrogenic actions of PCBs in the female rat. Reproductive Toxicology 7 237-248.
90. Jobling S & Sumpter JP 1993 Detergent components in sewage effluent are weakly oestrogenic to fish: an in vitro study using rainbow trout (Onchorynchus mykiss) hepatocytes. Aquatic Toxicology 27 361-372.
91. Jobling S, Reynolds T, White R, Parker MG & Sumpter MG 1995 A variety of environmentally persistent chemicals, including some phthalate plasticizers, are weakly estrogenic. Environmental Health Perspectives 103 582-587.
92. Jobling S, Sheahan D, Osborne JA, Matthiessen P & Sumpter JP 1996 Inhibition of testicular growth in rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss) exposed to estrogenic alkylphenolic chemicals. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 15 194-202.
93. Kaldas RS & Hughes CL Jr 1989 Reproductive and general metabolic effects of phytoestrogens in mammals. Reproductive Toxicology 3 81-89.
94. Kavlock RJ, Daston GP, DeRosa C, Fenner-Crisp P, Gray LE, Kaattari S, Lucier G, Luster M, Mac MJ, Maczka C et al. 1996 Research needs for the risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disruptors: a report of the US EPA-sponsored workshop. Environmental Health Perspectives 104 715-740.
95. Kelce WR & Wilson EM 1997 Environmental anti-androgens: developmental effects, molecular mechanisms and clinical applications. Journal of Molecular Medicine 75 198-207.
96. Kelce WR, Monosson E, Gamcsik MP, Laws SC & Gray LE Jr 1994 Environmental hormone disruptors: evidence that vinclozolin developmental toxicity is mediated by antiandrogenic metabolites. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 126 276-285.
97. Kelce WR, Stone CR, Laws SC, Gray LE, Kemppainen JA & Wilson EM 1995 Persistent DDT metabolite p,p′-DDE is a potent androgen receptor antagonist. Nature 375 581-585.
98. Key TJA & Pike MC 1988 The dose-effect relationship between 'unopposed' oestrogens and endometrial mitotic rate: its central role in explaining and predicting endometrial cancer risk. British Journal of Cancer 57 205-212.
99. Kieback DG, McCamant SK, Press MF, Atkinson EN, Gallager HS, Edwards CL, Hjek RA & Jones LA 1993 Improved prediction of survival in advanced adenocarcinoma of the ovary by immunocytochemical analysis and the composition adjusted receptor level of the estrogen receptor. Cancer Research 53 5188-5192.
100. King RJB 1997 Endometrial cancer: an introduction. In Biology of Female Cancers, pp 183-192. Eds SP Langdon, WR Miller & A Berchuck. New York: CRC Press.
101. Knight DC & Eden JA 1996 A review of the clinical effects of phytoestrogens. Obstetrics and Gynecology 87 897-904.
102. Kociba RJ, Keyes DG, Beyer JE, Carreon RM, Wade CE, Dittenbel DA, Kalnins RP, Frauson LE, Park CN, Barnard SD, Hummel RA & Hujiston CE 1978 Results of a two-year toxicity and oncogenicity study of 2,3,7,8-tetrachorodibenzo-p-dioxin in rats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 46 279-303.
103. Korach KS, Sarver P, Chae K, McLachlan JA & McKinney JD 1988 Estrogen receptor-binding activity of polychlorinated hydroxybiphenyls: conformationally restricted structural probes. Molecular Pharmacology 33 120-126.
104. Kreiger N, Wolff MS, Hiatt RA, Rivera M, Vogelman J & Orentreich N 1994 Breast cancer and serum organochlorines: a prospective study among white, black and Asian women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 86 589-599.
105. Krishnan AV, Stathis P, Permuth SF, Tokes L & Feldman D 1993 Bisphenol-A: an estrogenic substance is released from polycarbonate flasks during autoclaving. Endocrinology 132 2279-2286.
106. Kuiper GGJM, Enmark E, Pelto-Hukko M, Nilsson S & Gustafsson J-Å 1996 Cloning of a novel estrogen receptor expressed in rat prostate and ovary. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93 5925-5930.
107. Kuiper GGJM, Carlsson B, Grandien K, Enmark E, Häggblad J, Nilsson S & Gustafsson J-Å 1997 Comparison of the ligand binding specificity and transcript tissue distribution of estrogen receptors α and β. Endocrinology 138 863-870.
108. Kupfer D 1975 Effects of pesticides and related compounds on steroid metabolism and function. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 4 83-124.
109. Lamartiniere CA, Moore J, Holland MB & Barnes S 1995 Neonatal genistein chemoprevents mammary carcinogenesis. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 208 120-123.
110. Lamming GE 1957 The use of hormones in meat production. Agricultural Progress 23 1-8.
111. Lamming GE 1984 Report of the Scientific Group on Anabolic Agents in Animal Production. Commission of the European Communities, Report Europe 8913 4-25.
112. Lang EP, Kunze FM & Prickett CS 1951 Occurrence of DDT in human fat and milk. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 3 245-246.
113. Langdon SP, Simpson BJB, Bartlett JMS & Miller WR 1997 Hormonal, growth factor and cytokine control of ovarian cancer. In Biology of Female Cancers, pp 115-131. Eds SP Langdon, WR Miller & A Berchuck. New York: CRC Press.
114. La Vecchia C 1992 Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. The Breast 2 76-81.
115. Lee PC & Lee W 1996 In vivo estrogenic action of nonylphenol in immature female rats. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 57 341-348.
116. Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, Esteve J, Lee J & Day NE 1991 Dietary effects on breast cancer risk in Singapore. Lancet 337 1197-1200.
117. Lentz SS 1994 Advanced and recurrent endometrial carcinoma: hormonal therapy. Seminars in Oncology 21 100-106.
118. Lipsett MB 1979 Interaction of drugs, hormones and nutrition in the causes of cancer. Cancer 43 1967-1981.
119. Luft R, Olivercrona H & Sjorgen BJ 1952 Hypophysektomie pa manniska. Nordisk Medicine 47 351-354.
120. McCarty KS, Barton TK, Fetter BF, Creasman WT & McCarty KS 1979 Correlation of estrogen and progesterone receptors with histologic differentiation in endometrial adenocarcinoma. American Journal of Pathology 96 171-183.
121. McLachlan JA 1997 Synergistic effect of environmental estrogens: report withdrawn. Science 277 462-463.
122. MacMahon B, Cole P & Brown J 1973 Etiology of human breast cancer: a review. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 50 21-42.
123. MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food) 1987 Survey of plasticizer levels in food contact materials and in foods. Food Surveillance Report No. 21. London: HM Stationery Office.
124. MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food) 1996 Phthalates in infant formulae. Food Surveillance Report No. 83. London: HM Stationery Office.
125. Majdic G, Sharpe RM, O'Shaughnessy PJ & Saunders PTK 1996 Expression of cytochrome P450 17α-hydroxylase/C17-20 lyase (P450c17) in the fetal rat testis is reduced by maternal exposure to exogenous estrogens. Endocrinology 137 1063-1070.
126. Makela S, Poutanen M, Lhtimaki J & Kostian ML 1995 Estrogen-specific 17β-hydroxysteroid oxidoreductase Type I as a possible target for the action of phytoestrogens. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 208 51-59.
127. Manz A, Berger J, Dwyer JH, Flesch-Janys D, Nagel S & Waltsgott H 1991 Cancer mortality among workers in a chemical plant contaminated with dioxin. Lancet 338 959-964.
128. Marien K 1997 DDT/DDE and infant exposure. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 14-15.
129. Markovitz J, Linassier C, Fosse P, Couprie J, Jaquemin-Sablon A, Pecq JB & Larson AK 1989 Inhibitory effects of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein on mammalian DNA topoisomerase II. Cancer Research 49 5111-5117.
130. Messina MJ, Persky V, Setchell KDR & Barnes S 1994 Soy intake and cancer risk: a review of the in vitro and in vivo data. Nutrition and Cancer 21 113-131.
131. Miller WR 1991 Oestrogens and breast cancer: biological considerations. British Medical Bulletin 47 470-483.
132. Miller WR 1996 Estrogens and the risk of breast cancer. In Estrogen and Breast Cancer, pp 35-62. Ed WR Miller. Austen: RG Landes Co.
133. Miller WR 1997 Aromatase inhibitors and breast cancer. Cancer Treatment Reviews 23 171-187.
134. Miller WR & Langdon SP 1997 Hormonal, growth factor, and cytokine control of breast cancer. In Biology of Female Cancers, pp 43-60. Eds SP Langdon, WR Miller & A Berchuck. New York: CRC Press.
135. Miyazawa K 1976 Incidence of endometriosis among Japanese women. Obstetrics and Gynecology 48 407-409.
136. Morrison AS 1976 Cryptorchidism, hernia and cancer of the testis. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 56 731-733.
137. Mueller GC & Kim U 1978 Displacement of estradiol from estrogen receptors by simple alkyl phenols. Endocrinology 102 1429-1438.
138. Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Hasanen E, Pysalo H, Antervo K, Kauppila R & Pantzar P 1990 Occurrence of β-hexachlorocyclohexane in breast cancer patients. Cancer 66 2125-2128.
139. Myers AM, Moore GE & Major FJ 1981 Advanced ovarian carcinoma: response to antiestrogen therapy. Cancer 48 2368-2370.
140. Nagel SC, vom Saal FS, Thayer KA, Dhar MG, Boechler M & Welshons WV 1997 Relative binding affinity-serum modified access (RBA-SMA) assay predicts the relative in vivo bioactivity of the xenoestrogens bisphenol-A and octylphenol. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 70-76.
141. Nair-Menon JU, Campbell GT & Blake CA 1996 Toxic effects of octylphenol on cultured rat and murine splenocytes. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 139 437-444.
142. Nelson JA, Struck RF & James R 1978 Estrogenic activities of chlorinated hydrocarbons. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 4 325-339.
143. Ness DK, Schantz SL, Moshtaghian J & Hansen LG 1993 Effects of perinatal exposure to specific PCB congeners on thyroid hormone concentrations and thyroid histology in the rat. Toxicology Letters 68 311-323.
144. Netsaretnam K, Corcoran D, Dils RR & Darbre P 1996 3,4,3′,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl acts as an estrogen in vitro and in vivo. Molecular Endocrinology 10 923-936.
145. Nimrod AC & Benson WH 1996 Environmental estrogenic effects of alkylphenol ethoxylates. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 26 335-364.
146. Nomura AM & Kolonel LN 1991 Prostate cancer: a current perspective. Epidemiology Reviews 13 200-227.
147. Nomura A, Henderson BE & Lee J 1978 Breast cancer and diet among the Japanese in Hawaii. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31 2020-2025.
148. Oehlmann J, Schulte-Oehlmann U, Stroben E, Bauer B, Bettin C & Fiorni P 1996 Androgenic effects of organotin compounds in molluscs. In Endocrinologically Active Chemicals in the Environment, vol 3/96, pp 111-118. Berlin: Umweltbundesamt.
149. Okura A, Arakawa H, Oka H, Yoshinara T & Monden Y 1988 Effects of genistein on topoisomerase activity and on the growth of (Val 12) Ha-ras-transformed NIH 3T3 cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 179 661-667.
150. Olea N, Pulgar R, Pérez P, Olea-Serrano, F, Rivas A, Novillo-Fertrell A, Pedraza V, Soto AM & Sonnenschein C 1996 Estrogenicity of resin-based composites and sealants used in dentistry. Environmental Health Perspectives 104 298-305.
151. Page BD & Lacroix GM 1992 Studies into the transfer and migration of phthalate esters from aluminium foil-paper laminates to butter and margarine. Food Additives Contamination 9 197-212.
152. Palmlund I 1996 Exposure to a xenoestrogen before birth: the diethylstilbestrol experience. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology 17 71-84.
153. Peterson G & Barnes S 1991 Genistein inhibition of the growth of human breast cancer cells - independence from estrogen receptors and multidrug resistance gene. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 179 661-667.
154. Peterson RE, Theobald HM & Kimmel GL 1993 Developmental and reproductive toxicity of dioxins and related compounds: cross-species comparisons. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 23 283-335.
155. Pike MC, Spicer DV, Dahmoush L & Press MF 1993 Estrogens, progestogens, normal breast cell proliferation and breast cancer risk. Epidemiology Reviews 15 17-35.
156. Preston-Martin S, Pike MC, Ross RK, Jones PA & Henderson BE 1990 Increased cell division as a cause of human cancer. Cancer Research 50 7415-7421.
157. Pujol P, Hilsenbeck SG, Chamness GC & Elledge RM 1994 Rising levels of estrogen-receptor in breast cancer over 2 decades. Cancer 74 1601-1606.
158. Purdom CE, Hardiman PA, Bye VJ, Eno NC, Tyler CR & Sumpter JP 1994 Estrogenic effects of effluents from sewage treatment works. Chemical Ecology 8 275-285.
159. Ramamoorthy K, Wang F, Chen I-C, Safe S, Norris JD, McDonnell DP, Gaido KW, Bocchinfuso WP & Korach KS 1997 Potency of combined estrogenic pesticides. Science 275 405-406.
160. Rendina GM, Donadio C, Fabri M, Mazzoni P & Nazzicone P 1984 Tamoxifen and medroxyprogesterone therapy for advanced endometrial carcinoma. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproductive Biology 7 285-291.
161. Richardson GS & MacLaughlin DT 1978 Hormonal biology of endometrial cancer. UICC Technical Report Series 42 155.
162. Robson MC 1966 Cirrhosis and prostatic neoplasms. Geriatrics 21 150-154.
163. Rodriguez CAS & Toro-Sola MA 1982 Anabolic steroids in meat and premature telarche. Lancet i 1300.
164. Rogan WJ, Gladen BC, McKinney JD, Carreras N, Hardy P, Thullen J, Tingelstad J & Tully M 1986 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDE) in human milk: effects of maternal factors and previous lactation. American Journal of Public Health 76 172-177.
165. Rosenblatt KA, Thomas DB & Noonan EA 1992 High-dose and low-dose combined oral contraceptives: protection against epithelial ovarian cancer and the length of the protective effect. European Journal of Cancer 28A 1872-1876.
166. Ross R, Bernstein L, Judd H, Hanisch R, Pike M & Henderson B 1986 Serum testosterone levels in healthy young black and white men. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 76 45-48.
167. Ross RK, Bernstein L, Lobo RA, Shimizu H, Stanczyk FZ, Pike MC & Henderson BE 1992 The early in utero oestrogen and testosterone environment of blacks and whites: potential effects on male offspring. Lancet 339 887-889.
168. Routledge EJ & Sumpter JP 1997 Structural features of alklyphenolic chemicals associated with oestrogenic activity. Journal of Biological Chemistry 272 3280-3288.
169. Rurainski RD, Theiss HJ & Zimmermann W 1977 Über das Vorkommen von natürlichen und synthetischen Östrogenen im Trinkwasser. Gwf-Wasser/Abwasser 118 287-291.
170. vom Saal FS 1995 Environmental estrogenic chemicals: their impact on embryonic development. Human Ecological Risk Assessment 1 1-15.
171. vom Saal FS, Timms BG, Montano MM, Palanza PP, Thayer KA, Nagel SC, Dhar MD, Ganjam VK, Parmigiani S & Welshons WV 1997 Prostate enlargement in mice due to fetal exposure to low doses of estradiol or diethylstilbestrol and opposite effects at high doses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 94 2056-2061.
172. Safe SH 1995 Environmental and dietary estrogens and human health: is there a problem? Environmental Health Perspectives 103 346-351.
173. Safe S, Astroff B, Harris MT, Zacharewski T, Dickerson R, Romkes M & Biegel L 1991 2,3,7,8-Tetra-chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDDD) and related compounds as antiestrogens: characterization and mechanism of action. Pharmacology and Toxicology 69 400-409.
174. Salo LK, Makela SI, Stancel GM & Santti R 1997 Neonatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol permanently alters the basal and 17β-estradiol induced expression of c-fos proto-oncogene in mouse urethroprostatic complex. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 126 133-141.
175. Santti R, Pylkkanen L, Newbold R & McLachlan JA 1990 Developmental oestrogenization and prostatic neoplasia. International Journal of Andrology 13 77-80.
176. Santti R, Newbold R, Makela S, Pylkkanen L & McLachlan JA 1994 Developmental estrogenization and prostatic neoplasia. Prostate 24 67-78.
177. Satyaswaroop PG & Tabibzadeh S 1997 Endometrial carcinoma: Steroid hormones, growth factors and cytokines. In Biology of Female Cancers, pp 193-203. Eds SP Langdon, MR Miller & A Berchuck. New York: CRC Press.
178. Savage MO & Lowe DG 1990 Gonadal neoplasia and abnormal sexual differentiation. Clinical Endocrinology 32 519-533.
179. Schlesselman JJ 1991 Oral contraceptives and neoplasia of the uterine corpus. Contraception 43 557-579.
180. Setchell KDR 1985 Naturally occurring non-steroidal estrogens of dietary origin. In Estrogens in the Environment, pp 73-106. Ed J McLachlan. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
181. Setchell KDR 1995 Non-steroidal estrogens of dietary origin: possible roles in health and disease, metabolism and physiological effects. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of New Zealand 20 1-21.
182. Setchell KDR, Zimmer-Nechemias L, Cai J & Heubi JE 1997 Exposure of infants to phytoestrogens from soy-based infant formula. Lancet 350 23-27.
183. Sharman M, Read WA, Castle L & Gilbert J 1994 Levels of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and total phthalate esters in milk, cream, butter and cheese. Food Additives Contamination 11 375-385.
184. Sharpe RM 1995 Another DDT connection. Nature 375 538-539.
185. Sheahan DA, Bucke D, Matthieson P, Sumpter JP, Kirby MF, Neall P & Waldock M 1994 The effects of low levels of 17α-ethinyl oestradiol upon plasma vitellogenin levels in male and female rainbow trout, Onchorhynchus mykiss, held at two acclimation temperatures. In Sublethal and Chronic Effects of Pollutants on Freshwater Fish, pp 99-112. Eds R Müller & R Lloyd. Oxford: Fishing News Books.
186. Sheehan DM & Young M 1979 Diethylstilbestrol and estradiol binding to serum albumin and pregnancy plasma of rat and human. Endocrinology 104 1442-1446.
187. Shen K & Novak RF 1997 DDT stimulates c-erbB2, c-met and STATS tyrosine phosphorylation, Grb2-Sos association, MAPK phosphorylation and proliferation of human breast epithelial cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 231 17-21.
188. Shore LS, Gurevitz M & Shemish M 1993 Estrogen as an environmental pollutant. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 51 361-366.
189. Singletary K, MacDonald C & Wallig M 1997 The plasticizer benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) inhibits 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)-induced rat mammary DNA adduct formation and tumorigenesis. Carcinogenesis 18 1669-1673.
190. Slotman BJ & Rao BR 1988 Ovarian cancer (review): etiology, diagnosis, prognosis, surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy and endocrine therapy. Anticancer Research 8 417-434.
191. Somogyi A & Beck H 1993 Nurturing and breastfeeding: exposure to chemicals in breast milk. Environmental Health Perspectives 101 45-52.
192. Soto AM, Justicia H, Wray JW & Sonnenschein C 1991 p-Nonyl-Phenol: an estrogenic xenobiotic released from 'modified' polystyrene. Environmental Health Perspectives 92 167-173.
193. Soto AM, Chung KL & Sonnenschein C 1994 The pesticides endosulfan, toxaphene and dieldrin have estrogenic effects on human estrogen-sensitive cells. Environmental Health Perspectives 102 380-383.
194. Spitz MR, Sider JG, Pollack ES, Lynch HK & Newell GR 1986 Incidence and descriptive features of testicular cancer among United States whites, blacks and Hispanics: 1973-1982. Cancer 58 1785-1790.
195. Spooner N, Gibbs PE, Bryan GW & Goad LJ 1991 The effect of tributyltin upon steroid titres in the female dogwhelk, Nucella lapillus, and the development of imposex. Marine and Environmental Research 32 37-49.
196. Steinberg K, Thacker SB, Smith J, Stroup DF, Zack MM, Flanders WD & Berkelman RL 1991 A meta-analysis of the effect of estrogen replacement therapy on the risk of breast cancer. Journal of the American Medical Association 265 1985-1990.
197. Stewart HJ 1989 Clinical experience in the use of antioestrogen tamoxifen in the treatment of breast cancer. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 95B 231-237.
198. Sumpter JP & Jobling S 1995 Vitellogenesis as a biomarker for estrogenic contamination of the aquatic environment. Environmental Health Perspectives 103 173-178.
199. Tanimura M, Kobuchi H, Utsumi T, Yoshioka T, Kataoka S, Fujita Y & Utsumi K 1992 Neutrophil priming by granulocyte colony stimulating factor and its modulation by protein kinase inhibitors. Biochemical Pharmacology 44 1045-1052.
200. Ten Hallers-Tjabbes CC, Kemp JF & Boon JP 1994 Imposex in whelks (Buccinum undatum) from the open North Sea: relation to shipping traffic intensities. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28 311-313.
201. The Veterans Administration Cooperative Urological Research Group 1967 Treatment and survival of patients with cancer of the prostate. Surgical Gynecology and Obstetrics 124 1011-1017.
202. Thomas JA & Keenan EJ 1994 Effects of estrogens on the prostate. Journal of Andrology 15 97-99.
203. Thomson A 1902 Analysis of cases in which oophorectomy was performed for inoperable carcinoma of the breast. British Medical Journal 2 1538-1541.
204. Tibblin G, Ericksson M, Cnattinguis S & Ekbom A 1995 High birth weight as a predictor of prostate cancer risk. Epidemiology 6 423-424.
205. Timothy I 1982 Progesten therapy for ovarian cancer. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 89 561-563.
206. Toppari J, Larsen JC, Christiansen P, Giwercman A, Grandjean P, Guillette LJ Jr, Jégou B, Jensen TK, Jouannet P, Keiding N, Leffers H, McLachlan JA, Meyer O, Müller J, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Scheike T, Sharpe RM, Sumpter JS & Skakkebaek NE 1996 Male reproductive health and environmental xenoestrogens. Environmental Health Perspectives 104 741-803.
207. Trichopoulos D, MacMahon B & Cole P 1972 Menopause and breast cancer risk. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 5 635-648.
208. Troll W, Weisner R, Shellabarger CJ, Holtzman S & Stone JP 1980 Soybean diet lowers breast tumour incidence in irradiated rats. Carcinogenesis 1 469-472.
209. Tullner WW 1961 Uterotrophic action of the insecticide methoxychlor. Science 133 647-648.
210. United Kingdom Testicular Cancer Study Group 1994 Aetiology of testicular cancer: association with congenital abnormalities, age at puberty, infertility and exercise. British Medical Journal 308 1393-1399.
211. Utsumi T, Klostergard J, Akimura K, Edashige K & Sato EF 1992 Modulation of TNF-alpha-priming and stimulation dependent superoxide generation in human neutrophils by protein kinase inhibitors. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 294 271-278.
212. Verdeal K & Ryan DS 1979. Naturally occurring estrogens in plant food stuffs - a review. Journal of Food Protection 7 577-583.
213. Vermeulen A & Verdonck L 1978 Sex hormone concentrations in postmenopausal women. Relation to obesity, fat mass, age and years postmenopause. Clinical Endocrinology 9 59-66.
214. Walsh PC 1988 The role of estrogen/androgen synergism in the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Journal of Urology 139 826.
215. Wang C, Makela T, Hase TA, Adlercreutz H & Kurzer MS 1994 Lignans and isoflavonoids inhibit aromatase enzyme in human preadipocytes. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 50 205-212.
216. Wei H, Wei L, Frenkel K, Bowen R & Barnes S 1993 Inhibition of tumour-promoter induced hydrogen peroxide formation by genistein in vitro and in vivo. Nutrition and Cancer 20 285-290.
217. West CD, Hollander VP, Whitmore WF, Randall HT & Pearson OH 1952 The effect of bilateral adrenalectomy upon neoplastic disease in man. Cancer 5 1009-1018.
218. White E 1987 Projected changes in breast cancer incidence due to the trend toward delaying childbearing. American Journal of Public Health 77 495-497.
219. White TEK & Gasiewica TA 1993 The human estrogen receptor structural gene contains a DNA sequence that binds activated mouse and human Ah receptors. A possible mechanism of estrogen receptor regulation by 2,3,7,8-tetrachorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 193 956-962.
220. White R, Jobling S, Hoare, SA, Sumpter JP & Parker MG 1994 Environmentally persistent alkylphenolic compounds are estrogenic. Endocrinology 135 175-182.
221. Whitlock JP Jr 1994 The aromatic hydrocarbon receptor, dioxin action and endocrine homeostasis. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 5 183-188.
222. Whittemore AS 1993 Fertility drugs and risk of ovarian cancer. Human Reproduction 8 999-1000.
223. Wine RN, Li L-H, Barnes LH, Gulati DK & Chapin RE 1997 Reproductive toxicity of di-n-butylphthalate in a continuous breeding protocol in Sprague-Dawley rats. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 102-107.
224. Wolff MS 1995 Pesticides - how research has succeeded and failed in informing policy: DDT and the link with breast cancer. Environmental Health Perspectives 103 87-91.
225. Wolff MS, Toniolo P, Lee E, Rivera M & Dubin N 1993 Blood levels of organochlorine residues and risk of breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 85 648-652.
226. Wolff MS, Collman GW, Barrett JC & Huff J 1996 Breast cancer and environmental risk factors: epidemiological and experimental findings. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 36 537-596.
227. Yuan M-J, Wang Q-S, Ross RK, Henderson BE & Yu MC 1995 Diet and breast cancer in Shanghai and Tianjin, China. British Journal of Cancer 71 1353-1358.
228. Zava DT & Duwe G 1997 Estrogenic and antiproliferative properties of genistein and other flavonoids in human breast cancer cells in vitro. Nutrition and Cancer 27 31-40.
229. Zhu BT, Ezell EL & Liehr JG 1994 Catechol-O-methyl-transferase-catalyzed rapid O-methylation of mutagenic flavonoids. Journal of Biological Chemistry 269 292-299.