Peroxynitrite: A biologically significant oxidant

General Pharmacology

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 179-186

  Murphy, Michael P ^a   Packer, Michael A ^a   Scarlett, Jared L ^a   Martin, Stephen W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Nitric oxide; Oxidative stress; Peroxynitrite; Superoxide

Indexed keywords

3 NITROTYROSINE; GLUTATHIONE; NITRIC OXIDE; OXIDIZING AGENT; PEROXYNITRITE; RHODAMINE; SUPEROXIDE;

APOPTOSIS; CHEMOLUMINESCENCE; HUMAN; MITOCHONDRIAL RESPIRATION; NITRATION; OXIDATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REACTION ANALYSIS; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; NITRATES; NITRIC OXIDE; OXIDANTS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; SUPEROXIDES;

EID: 0031837496     PISSN: 03063623     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0306-3623(97)00418-7     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Ames B. N., Shigenaga M. K. and Hagen T. M. (1993) Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 7915-7922.
2. Augusto O., Gatti R. M. and Radi R. (1994) Spin-trapping studies of peroxynitrite decomposition and of 3-morpholinosydnonimine N-ethylcarbamide autooxidation: direct evidence for metal-independent formation of free radical intermediates. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 310, 118-125.
3. Baggiolini M. and Wymann M. P. (1990) Turning on the respiratory burst. Trends Biochem. Sci. 15, 69-72.
4. Barker J. E., Bolanos J. P., Land J. M., Clark J. B. and Heales S. J. R. (1996) Glutathione protects astrocytes from peroxynitrite-mediated mitochondrial damage. Dev. Neurosci. 18, 391-396.
5. Bates T. E., Loesch A., Burnstock G. and Clark J. B. (1995) Immunocytochemical evidence for a mitochondrially located nitric oxide synthase in brain and liver. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 213, 896-900.
6. Beckman J. S. (1994) Peroxynitrite versus hydroxyl radical: the role of nitric oxide in superoxide-dependent cerebral injury. Annal. NY Acad. Sci. 738, 69-75.
7. Beckman J. S. and Koppenol W. H. (1996) Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good the bad and the ugly. Am. J. Physiol. 271, C1424-C1437.
8. Beckman J. S. and Tsai J.-H. (1994) Reactions and diffusion of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite. The Biochemist Oct/Nov, 8-10.
9. Beckman J. S., Beckman T. W., Chen J., Marshall P. A. and Freeman B. A. (1990) Apparent hydroxyl radical production by peroxynitrite: implications for endothelial injury from nitric oxide and superoxide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 1620-1624-
10. Beckman J. S., Ischiropoulos H., Zhu L., van der Woerd M., Smith C., Chen J., Harrison J., Martin J. C. and Tsai M. (1992) Kinetics of superoxide dismutase- and iron-catalyzed nitration of phenolics by peroxynitrite. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 298, 438-445.
11. Beckman J. S., Chen J., Ischiropoulos H. and Crow J. P. (1994a) Oxidative chemistry of peroxynitrite. Meth. Enzymol. 233, 229-240.
12. Beckman J. S., Ye Y. Z., Anderson P. G., Chen J., Accavitti M. A., Tarpey M. M. and White C. R. (1994b) Extensive nitration of protein tyrosines in human atherosclerosis detected by immunohistochemistry. Biol. Chem. Hoppe-Seyler 375, 81-88.
13. Blough N. V. and Zafiriou O. C. (1985) Reaction of superoxide with nitric oxide to form peroxynitrite in alkaline aqueous solution. Inorg. Chem. 24, 3502-3504.
14. -, and its characterization as a tetramethylammonium salt. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116, 7423-7424.
15. Bonfoco E., Krainc D., Ankarcrona M., Nicotera P. and Lipton S. A. (1995) Apoptosis and necrosis: two distinct events induced, respectively, by mild and intense insults with N-methyl-D-aspartate or nitric oxide/superoxide in cortical cell cultures. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 7162-7166.
16. Bredt D. S. and Snyder S. H. (1994) Nitric oxide: a physiological messenger molecule. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 63, 175-195.
17. Brown G. C. (1995) Nitric oxide regulates mitochondrial respiration and cell functions by inhibiting cytochrome oxidase. FEBS Lett. 369, 136-139.
18. Brunelli L., Crow J. P. and Beckman J. S. (1995) The comparative toxicity of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite to Escherichia coli. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 316, 327-334.
19. Cassina A. and Radi R. (1996) Differential inhibitory action of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite on mitochondrial electron transport. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 328, 309-316.
20. CaZevieille C., Muller A., Meynier F. and Bonne C. (1993) Superoxide and nitric oxide cooperation in hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced neuron injury. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 14, 389-394.
21. Chance B., Sies H. and Boveris A. (1979) Hydroperoxide metabolism in mammalian organs. Physiol. Rev. 59, 527-605.
22. Crompton M. and Andreeva L. (1993) On the involvement of a mitochondrial pore in reperfusion injury. Basic Res. Cardiol. 88, 513-523.
23. Crow J. P. and Beckman J. S. (1995) Quantitation of protein tyrosine, 3-nitrotyrosine, and 3-aminotyrosine utilizing HPLC and intrinsic ultraviolet absorbance. Methods 7, 116-120.
24. Crow J. P. and Beckman J. S. (1996) The importance of superoxide in nitric oxide-dependent toxicity. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 387, 147-161.
25. Denicola A., Freeman B. A., Trujillo M. and Radi R. (1996) Peroxynitrite reaction with carbon dioxide/bicarbonate: kinetics and influence on peroxynitrite-mediated oxidations. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 333, 49-58.
26. Ellman G. and Lysko H. (1979) A precise method for the determination of whole blood and plasma sulfhydryl groups. Anal. Biochem. 93, 98-102.
27. Estevez A. G., Radi R., Barbeito L., Shin J. T., Thompson J. A. and Beckman J. S. (1995) Peroxynitrite-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells: evidence for an apoptotic mechanism differentially modulated by neurotrophic factors. J. Neurochem. 65, 1543-1550.
28. Gardner P. R. and Fridovich I. (1991) Superoxide sensitivity of the Escherichia coli 6-phosphogluconate dehydratase. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 1478-1483.
29. Gatti R. M., Radi R. and Augusto O. (1994) Peroxynitrite-mediated oxidation of albumin to the protein-thiyl free radical. FEBS Lett. 348, 287-290.
30. •-: a pulse radiolysis study. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 19, 505-510.
31. Goldstein S., Squadrito G. L., Pryor W. A. and Czapski G. (1996) Direct and indirect oxidations by peroxynitrite neither involving the hydroxyl radical. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 21, 965-974.
32. Gryglewski R. J., Palmer R. M. J. and Moncada S. (1986) Superoxide anion is involved in the breakdown of endothelium-derived vascular relaxing factor. Nature 320, 454-456.
33. Gunter T. E., Gunter K. K., Sheu S. S. and Gavin C. E. (1994) Mitochondrial calcium transport: physiology and pathological relevance. Am. J. Physiol. 267, C313-C339.
34. Halliwell B. H. and Gutteridge J. M. C. (1989). Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
35. Hogg N., Darley-Usmar V. M., Wilson M. T. and Moncada S. (1992) Production of hydroxyl radicals from the simultaneous generation of superoxide and nitric oxide. Biochem. J. 281, 419-424.
36. Huang Z., Huang P. L., Panahian N., Dalkara T., Fishman M. C. and Moskowitz M. A. (1994) Effects of cerebral ischemia in mice deficient in neuronal nitric oxide synthase. Science 265, 1883-1885.
37. Hughes M. N. and Nicklin H. G. (1968) The chemistry of pernitrites. Part 1. Kinetics of decomposition of pernitrous acid. J. Chem. Soc. A, 450-452.
38. Huie R. E. and Padmaja S. (1993) The reaction of NO with superoxide. Free Radical Res. Commun. 18, 195-199.
39. Inoue S. and Kawanishi S. (1995) Oxidative DNA damage induced by simultaneous generation of nitric oxide and superoxide. FEBS Lett. 371, 86-88.
40. Irani K., Xia Y., Zweier J. L., Sollot S. J., Der C. J., Fearon E. R., Sundaresan M., Finkel T. and Goldschmidt-Clermont P. J. (1997) Mitogenic signalling mediated by oxidants in Ras-transformed fibroblasts. Science 275, 1649-1652.
41. Ischiropoulos H. and Al-Mehdi A. B. (1995) Peroxynitrite-mediated oxidative protein modifications. FEBS Lett. 364, 279-282.
42. Ischiropoulos H., Zhu L. and Beckman J. S. (1992a) Peroxynitrite formation from macrophage-derived nitric oxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 298, 446-451.
43. Ischiropoulos H., Zhu L., Chen J., Tsai M., Martin J. C., Smith C. D. and Beckman J. S. (1992b) Peroxynitrite-mediated tyrosine nitration catalysed by superoxide dismutase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 298, 431-437.
44. Ischiropoulos H., Beckman J. S., Crow J. P., Ye Y. Z., Royall J. A. and Kooy N. W. (1995) Detection of peroxynitrite. Methods 7, 109-115.
45. Karoui H., Hogg N., Frejaville C., Tordo P. and Kalyanaraman B. (1996) Characterisation of sulfur-centred radical intermediates formed during the oxidation of thiols and sulfite by peroxynitrite. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 6000-6009.
46. Kaur H. and Halliwell B. (1994) Evidence for nitric oxide-mediated oxidative damage in chronic inflammation. FEBS Lett. 350, 9-12.
47. Kelm M. and Schrader J. (1988) Nitric oxide release from the isolated guinea pig heart. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 155, 317-321.
48. Klug D., Rabani J. and Fridovich I. (1972) A direct demonstration of the catalytic action of superoxide dismutase through the use of pulse radiolysis. J. Biol. Chem. 247, 4839-4842.
49. Kong S.-K., Yim M. B., Stadtman E. R. and Chock P. B. (1996) Peroxynitrite disables the tyrosine phosphorylation regulatory mechanism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 3377-3382.
50. Kooy N. W., Royall J. A., Ischiropoulos H. and Beckman J. S. (1994) Peroxynitrite-mediated oxidation of dihydrorhodamine 123. Free Radical Biol. Med. 16, 149-156.
51. Koppenol W. H., Moreno J. J., Pryor W. A., Ischiropoulos H. and Beckman J. S. (1992) Peroxynitrite, a cloaked oxidant formed by nitric oxide and superoxide. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 5, 834-842.
52. Lancaster J. R. (1994) Simulation of the diffusion and reaction of endogenously produced nitric oxide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 8137-8141.
53. Lin K.-T., Xue J.-Y., Nomen M., Spur B. and Wong P. Y.-K. (1995) Peroxynitrite-induced apoptosis in HL-60 cells. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 16487-16490.
54. Lizasoain I., Moro M. A., Knowles R. G., Darley-Usmer V. and Moncada S. (1996) Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite exert distinct effects on mitochondrial respiration which are differentially blocked by glutathione or glucose. Biochem. J. 314, 877-880.
55. Lymar S. V. and Hurst J. K. (1995) Rapid reaction between peroxynitrite ion and carbon dioxide: implications for biological activity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117, 8867-8868.
56. MacMillan-Crow L. A., Crow J. P., Kerby J. D., Beckman J. S. and Thompson J. A. (1996) Nitration and inactivation of manganese superoxide dismutase in chronic rejection of human renal allografts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 11853-11858.
57. Malinski T. and Ziad T. (1992) Nitric oxide release from a single cell measured in situ by a porphyrinic-based microsensor. Nature 358, 676-678.
58. Malinski T., Bailey F., Zhang Z. G. and Chopp M. (1993) Nitric oxide measured by a porphyrinic microsensor in rat brain after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 13, 355-358.
59. Mayer B., Schrammel A., Klatt P., Koesling D. and Schmidt K. (1995) Peroxynitrite-induced accumulation of cyclic GMP in endothelial cells and stimulation of purified soluble guanylyl cyclase. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 17355-17360.
60. Mohr S., Stamler J. S. and Brune B. (1994) Mechanism of covalent modification of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase at its active site thiol by nitric oxide, peroxynitrite and related nitrosating agents. FEBS Lett. 348, 223-227.
61. Muijsers R. B. R., Folkerts G., Henricks P. A. J., Sadeghi-Hashjin G. and Nijkamp F. P. (1997) Peroxynitrite: a two-faced metabolite of nitric oxide. Life Sci. 60, 1833-1845.
62. Ohshima H., Friesen M., Brouet I. and Bartsch H. (1990) Nitrotyrosine as a new marker for endogenous nitrosation and nitration of proteins. Food Chem. Toxicol. 28, 647-652.
63. Packer M. A. and Murphy M. P. (1994) Peroxynitrite causes calcium efflux from mitochondria which is prevented by Cyclosporin A. FEBS Lett. 345, 237-240.
64. Packer M. A. and Murphy M. P. (1995) Peroxynitrite formed by simultaneous nitric oxide and superoxide generation causes Cyclosporin A-sensitive calcium efflux from mitochondria. Eur. J. Biochem. 234, 231-239.
65. Packer M. A., Miesel R. and Murphy M. P. (1996a) Exposure to the parkinsonian neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) and nitric oxide simultaneously causes cyclosporin A-sensitive mitochondrial calcium efflux and depolarisation. Biochem. Pharmacol. 51, 267-273.
66. Packer M. A., Porteous C. M. and Murphy M. P. (1996b) Mitochondrial superoxide production in the presence of nitric oxide leads to the formation of peroxynitrite. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 40, 527-534.
67. Packer M. A., Scarlett J. L., Martin S. W. and Murphy M. P. (1997) Induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition by peroxynitrite. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 25, 831-836.
68. Petit P. X., Susin S.-A., Zamzami N., Mignotte B. and Kroemer G. (1996) Mitochondria and programmed cell death. FEBS Lett. 396, 7-13.
69. Pfeiffer S., Gorren A. C. F., Schmidt K., Werner E. R., Hansert B., Bohle D. S. and Mayer B. (1997) Metabolic fate of peroxynitrite in aqueous solutions. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 3465-3470.
70. Poderoso J. J., Carreras M. C., Lisdero C., Riobo N., Schopfer F. and Boveris A. (1996) Nitric oxide inhibits electron transfer and increases superoxide radical production in rat heart mitochondria and submitochondrial particles. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 328, 85-92.
71. Pryor W. A. and Squadrito G. L. (1995) The chemistry of peroxynitrite: a product from the reaction of nitric oxide with superoxide. Am. J. Physiol. 268, L699-L722.
72. Pryor W. A., Cueto R., Jin X., Koppenol W. H., Ngu-Schwemlein M., Squadrito G. L., Uppu P. L. and Uppu R. M. (1995) A practical method for preparing peroxynitrite solutions of low ionic strength and free of hydrogen peroxide. Free Radical Biol. Med. 18, 75-83.
73. Pryor W. A., Jin X. and Squadrito G. L. (1996) Insensitivity of the rate of decomposition of peroxynitrite to changes in viscosity; evidence against free radical formation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118, 3125-3128.
74. Przedborski S., Jackson-Lewis V., Yokoyama R., Shibata T., Dawson V. L. and Dawson T. M. (1996) Role of neuronal nitric oxide in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 4565-4571.
75. Quijano C., Alvarez B., Gatti R. M., Augusto O. and Radi R. (1997) Pathways of peroxynitrite oxidation of thiol groups. Biochem. J. 322, 167-173.
76. Radi R., Beckman J. S., Bush K. M. and Freeman B. A. (1991a) Peroxynitrite oxidation of sulfhydryls. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 4244-4250.
77. Radi R., Beckman J. S., Bush K. M. and Freeman B. A. (1991b) Peroxynitrite-induced membrane lipid peroxidation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288, 481-487.
78. Radi R., Cosgrove T. P., Beckman J. S. and Freeman B. A. (1993) Peroxynitrite-induced luminol chemiluminescence. Biochem. J. 290, 51-57.
79. Radi R., Rodriguez M., Castro L. and Telleri R. (1994) Inhibition of mitochondrial electron transport by peroxynitrite. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 308, 89-95.
80. Reed D. (1990) Glutathione: toxicological implications. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 30, 603-631.
81. Richter C., Park J.-W. and Ames B. N. (1988) Normal oxidative damage to mitochondrial and nuclear DNA is extensive. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 6465-6467.
82. Rubbo H., Denicola A. and Radi R. (1994) Peroxynitrite inactivates thiolcontaining Trypanosoma cruzi energetic metabolism and inhibits cell respiration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 308, 96-102.
83. Salgo M. G., Stone K., Squadrito G. L., Battista J. R. and Pryor W. A. (1995a) Peroxynitrite causes DNA nicks in plasmid pBR322. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 210, 1025-1030.
84. Salgo M. G., Squadrito G. L. and Pryor W. A. (1995b) Peroxynitrite causes apoptosis in rat thymocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 215, 1111-1118.
85. Saxena K., Henry T. R., Solem L. E. and Wallace K. B. (1995) Enhanced induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition following acute menadione administration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 317, 79-84.
86. Scarlett J. L., Packer M. A., Porteous C. M. and Murphy M. P. (1996) Alterations to glutathione and nicotinamide nucleotides during the mitochondrial permeability transition induced by peroxynitrite. Biochem. Pharmacol. 52, 1047-1055.
87. Schulz J. B., Matthews R. T., Muqit M. M., Browne S. E. and Beal M. F. (1995) Inhibition of neuronal nitric oxide synthase by 7-nitroindazole protects against MPTP-induced neurotoxicity in mice. J. Neurochem. 64, 936-939.
88. Schweizer M. and Richter C. (1996) Peroxynitrite stimulates the pyridine nucleotide-linked Ca release from intact rat liver mitochondria. Biochemistry 35, 4524-4528.
89. Sergei V. and Hurst J. K. (1995) Rapid reaction between peroxynitrite ion and carbon dioxide: implications for biological activity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117, 8867-8868.
90. Shibuki K. and Okada D. (1991) Endogenous nitric oxide release required for long-term synaptic depression in the cerebellum. Nature 349, 326-329.
91. Shigenaga M. K., Hagen T. M. and Ames B. N. (1994) Oxidative damage and mitochondrial decay in aging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 10771-10778.
92. Sies H. (1993) Strategies of antioxidant defense. Eur. J. Biochem. 215, 213-219.
93. Slater A. F. G., Stefan C., Nobel I. and Orrenius S. (1995) The role of intracellular oxidants in apoptosis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1271, 59-62.
94. Squadrito G. L. and Pryor W. A. (1995) The formation of peroxynitrite in vivo from nitric oxide and superoxide. Chem. Biol. Interact. 96, 203-206.
95. Susin S. A., Zamzami N., Castedo M., Hirsch T., Marchetti P., Macho A., Daugas E., Geuskens M. and Kroemer G. (1996) Bcl-2 inhibits the mitochondrial release of an apoptogenic protease. J. Exp. Med. 184, 1-11.
96. Szabo C. and Salzman A. L. (1995) Endogenous peroxynitrite is involved in the inhibition of mitochondrial respiration in immuno-stimulated J774.2 macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 209, 739-743.
97. Szabo C., Salzman A. L. and Ischiropoulos H. (1995) Peroxynitrite-mediated oxidation of dihydrorhodamine 123 occurs in early stages of endotoxic and hemorrhagic shock and ischemia-reperfusion injury. FEBS Lett. 372, 229-232.
98. Szabo C., Zingarelli B., O'Connor M. and Salzman A. L. (1996) DNA strand breakage, activation of poly(ADP-ribose)synthetase, and cellular energy depletion are involved in the cytotoxicity in macrophages and smooth muscle cells exposed to peroxynitrite. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 1753-1758.
99. Troy C. M., Derossi D., Prochiantz A., Greene L. A. and Shelanski M. L. (1996) Downregulation of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase leads to cell death via the nitric oxide-peroxynitrite pathway. J. Neurosci. 16, 253-261.
100. Uppu R. M. and Pryor W. A. (1996) Synthesis of peroxynitrite in a two-phase system using isoamyl nitrite and hydrogen peroxide. Anal. Biochem. 236, 242-249.
101. Uppu R. M., Squadrito G. L. and Pryor W. A. (1996) Acceleration of peroxynitrite oxidations by carbon dioxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 327, 335-343.
102. van der Vliet A., Eiserich J. P., O'Neill C. A., Halliwell B. and Cross C. E. (1995) Tyrosine modification by reactive nitrogen species. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 319, 341-349.
103. van der Vliet A., Eiserich J. P., Halliwell B. and Cross C. E. (1997) Formation of reactive nitrogen species during peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of nitrate. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 7617-7625.
104. Vayssiere J.-L., Petit P. X., Risler Y. and Mignotte B. (1994) Commitment to apoptosis is associated with changes in mitochondrial biogenesis and activity in cell lines conditionally immortalized with simian virus 40. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 11752-11756.
105. Watts B. P., Barnard M. and Turrens J. F. (1995) Peroxynitrite-dependent chemiluminescence of amino acids, proteins, and intact cells. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 317, 324-330.
106. Wink D. A., Cook J. A., Pacelli R., Liebmann J., Krishna M. C. and Mitchell J. B. (1995) Nitric oxide protects against cellular damage by reactive oxygen species. Toxicol. Lett. 82, 221-226.
107. Winterbourn C. C. (1993) Superoxide as an intracellular radical sink. Free Radical Biol. Med. 14, 85-90.
108. Xia Y. and Zweier J. L. (1997) Superoxide and peroxynitrite generation from inducible nitric oxide synthase in macrophages. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 6954-6958.
109. Zamzami N., Susin S. A., Marchetti P., Hirsch T., Gomez-Monterrey I., Castedo M. and Kroemer G. (1996) Mitochondrial control of nuclear apoptosis. J. Exp. Med. 183, 1533-1544.
110. Zhang H., Squadrito G. L., Uppu R. M., Lemercier J. N., Cueto R. and Pryor W. A. (1997) Inhibition of peroxynitrite mediated oxidation of glutathione by carbon dioxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 339, 183-189.
111. Zhu L., Gunn C. and Beckman J. S. (1992) Bactericidal activity of peroxynitrite. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 298, 452-457.
112. Zoratti M. and Zabo I. (1995) The mitochondrial permeability transition. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1241, 139-176.