Genetics of skeletogenesis

Developmental Genetics

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 301-313

  Karsenty, Gerard ^a  

^a BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cell differentiation; Genetics; Skeletogenesis

Indexed keywords

BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN;

BONE DEVELOPMENT; BONE MINERALIZATION; BONE REMODELING; CARTILAGE CELL; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL FUNCTION; CHICKEN; DEVELOPMENTAL GENETICS; EMBRYO PATTERN FORMATION; HUMAN; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; OSTEOBLAST; OSTEOCLAST; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; BODY PATTERNING; BONE DEVELOPMENT; BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEINS; BONE REMODELING; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CHONDROCYTES; EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT; HUMANS; OSTEOBLASTS;

GALLUS GALLUS; MAMMALIA;

EID: 0031832548     PISSN: 0192253X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6408(1998)22:4<301::AID-DVG1>3.0.CO;2-A     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Ahrens M, Ankenbauer T, Schroder D, Hollnagel A, Mayer H, Gross G (1993): Expression of human bone morphogenetic proteins-2 or -4 in murine mesenchymal progenitor C3H10T1/2 cells induces differentiation into distinct mesenchymal cell lineages. DNA Cell Biol 12:871-880.
2. Asahina I, Sampath TK, Nishimura I, Hauschka PV (1993): Human osteogenic protein-1 induces both chondroblastic and osteoblastic differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells derived from newborn rat calvaria. J Cell Biol 123:921-933.
3. Balling R, Deutsch U, Gruss P (1988): Undulated, a mutation affecting the development of the mouse skeleton, has a point mutation in the paired box of Pax 1. Cell 55:431-535.
4. Baron R (1989): Molecular mechanisms of bone resorption by the osteoclast. Anat Rec 224:317-324.
5. Bell DM, Leung KK, Wheatley SC, Ng LJ, Zhou S, Ling KW, Sham MH, Koopman P, Tam PP, Cheah KS (1997): SOX9 directly regulates the type-II collagen gene. Nat Genet 16:174-178.
6. Bellusci S, Henderson R, Winnier G, Oikawa T, Hogan BL (1996): Evidence from normal expression and targeted misexpression that bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp-4) plays a role in mouse embryonic lung morphogenesis. Development 122:1693-702.
7. Bitgood MJ, McMahon AP (1993): Hedgehog and Bmp genes are coexpressed at many diverse sites of cell-cell interaction in the mouse embryo. Dev Biol 172:126-138.
8. Byers PH (1990): Brittle bones-fragile molecules: disorders of collagen gen structure and expression. Trends Genet 6:293-300.
9. Byers PH, Steiner RD (1992): Osteogenesis imperfecta. Annu Rev Med 43:269-282.
10. Chen H, Ovchinnikov D, Pressman CL, Aulelha A, Lun Y, Johnson RL (1998): Multiple calvarial defects in γmx1b mutant mice. Dev Genet 22:314-320.
11. Chen J, Shapiro HS, Sodek J (1992): Development expression of bone sialoprotein mRNA in rat mineralized connective tissues. J Bone Miner Res 7:987-997.
12. Chen P, Vukicevic S, Sampath T, Luyten F (1995): Osteogenic protein-1 promotes growth and maturation of chick sternal chondrocytes in serum-free cultures. J Cell Sci 108:105-114.
13. Chiang C, Litingtung Y, Lee E, Young KE, Corden JL, Westphal H, Beachy PA (1996): Cyclopia and defective axial patterning in mice lacking Sonic hedgehog gene function. Nature 383:407-413.
14. Cohn MJ, Izpisua-Belmonte JC, Abud H, Heath JK, Tickle C (1995): Fibroblast growth factors induce additional limb development from the flank of chick embryos. Cell 80:739-746.
15. Colvin JS, Bohne BA, Harding GW, McEwen DG, Ornitz DM (1996): Skeletal overgrowth and deafness in mice lacking fibroblast growth factor receptor 3. Nat Genet 12:390-397.
16. Couly GF, Coltey PM, Le Douarin NM (1993): The triple origin of the skull in higher vertebrates: a study in quail-chick chimeras. Development 117:409-429.
17. Crossley PH, Minowada G, MacArthur CA, Martin GR (1996): Roles for FGF8 in the induction, initiation, and maintenance of chick limb development. Cell 84:127-136.
18. Cygan J, Johnson RL, McMahon AP (1997): Novel regulatory interactions revealed by studies of murin limb pattern in Wnt-7a and En-1 mutants. Development 124:5021-5032.
19. Denhardt DT, Guo X (1993): Osteopontin: a protein with diverse functions. FASEB J 7:1475-1482.
20. Ducy P, Karsenty G (1995): Two distinct osteoblast-specific cis-acting elements control expression of a mouse osteocalcin gene. Mol Cell Biol 15:1858-1869.
21. Ducy P, Desbois C, Boyce B, Pinero G, Story B, Dunstan C, Smith E, Bonadio J, Goldstein S, Gundberg C, Bradley A, Karsenty G (1996): Increased bone formation in osteocalcin-deficient mice. Nature 382:448-452.
22. Ducy P, Zhang R, Geoffroy V, Ridall AL, Karsenty G (1997): Osf2/Cbfa1: a transcriptional activator of osteoblast differentiation. Cell 89:747-754.
23. Duffy JB, Kania MA, Gergen JP (1991): Expression and function of the Drosophila gene runt in early stages of neural development. Development 113:1223-1230.
24. Dunn NR, Winnier GE, Hargett LK, Schrick JJ, Fogo AB, Hogan BL (1997): Haploinsufficient phenotypes in Bmp4 heterozygous null mice and modification by mutations in Gli3 and Alx4. Dev Biol 188:235-247.
25. Epstein DJ, Vekemans M, Gros P (1991): Splotch (Sp2H), a mutation affecting development of the mouse neural tube, shows a deletion within the paired homeodomain of Pax-3. Cell 67:767-774.
26. Erlebacher A, Filvaroff EH, Gitelman SE, Derynck R (1995): Toward a molecular understanding of skeletal development. Cell 80:371-378.
27. Erlebacher A, Derynck R (1996): Increased expression of TGF-beta 2 in osteoblasts results in an osteoporosis-like phenotype. J Cell Biol 132:195-210.
28. Fallon JF, Kelley RO (1977): Ultrastructural analysis of the apical ectodermal ridge during vertebrate limb morphogenesis. J Embryol Exp Morph 41:223-232.
29. Franzoso G, Carlson L, Xing L, Poljak L, Shores EW, Brown KD, Leonardi A, Tran T, Boyce BF, Siebenlist U (1997): Requirement for NF-kappaB in osteoclast and B-cell development. Genes Dev 11: 3482-3496.
30. Frost HM (1969): Tetracycline-based histological analysis of bone remodeling. Calcif Tissue Res 3:211-237.
31. Gelb BD, Shi GP, Chapman HA, Desnick RJ (1996): Pycnodysostosis, a lysosomal disease caused by cathepsin K deficiency. Science 273: 1236-1238.
32. Geoffroy V, Ducy P, Karsenty G (1995): APEBP2 alpha/AML-1-related factor increases osteocalcin promoter activity through its binding to an osteoblast-specific cis-acting element. J Biol Chem 270:30973-30979.
33. Grigoriadis AE, Wang ZQ, Cecchini MG, Hofstetter W, Felix R, Fleisch HA, Wagner EF (1994): c-Fos: a key regulator of osteoclast-macrophage lineage determination and bone remodeling. Science 266:443-448.
34. Grigoriadis AE, Wang ZQ, Wagner EF (1995): Fos and bone cell development: lessons from a nuclear oncogene. Trends Genet 11:436-441.
35. Grieshammer U, Minowada G, Pisenti JM, Abbott UK, Martin GR (1996): The chick limbless mutation causes abnormalities in limb bud dorsal-ventral patterning: implications for the mechanism of apical ridge formation. Development 122:3851-3861.
36. Hall BK, Miyake T (1992): The membranous skeleton: the role of cell condensations in vertebrate skeletogenesis. Anat Embryol (Berl) 186:107-124.
37. Harland RM (1994): The transforming growth factor beta family and induction of the vertebrate mesoderm: bone morphogenetic proteins are ventral inducers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91:10243-10246.
38. Heinegard D, Hultenby K, Oldberg A, Reinholt F, Wendel M (1989): Macromolecules in bone matrix. Connect Tissue Res 21:3-11.
39. Hodgkinson CA, Moore KJ, Nakayama A, Steingrimsson E, Copeland NG, Jenkins NA, Arnheiter H (1993): Mutations at the mouse microphthalmia locus are associated with defects in a gene encoding a novel basic-helix-loop-helix-zipper protein. Cell 74:395-404.
40. Hofmann C, Luo G, Balling R, Karsenty G (1996): Analysis of limb patterning in BMP-7-deficient mice. Dev Genet 19:43-50.
41. Hogan BL (1996a): Bone morphogenetic proteins: multifunctional regulators of vertebrate development. Genes Dev 10:1580-1594.
42. Hogan BL (1996b): Bone morphogenetic proteins in development. Curr Opin Genet Dev 6:432-438.
43. Horton WA (1993): Morphology of connective tissue: Cartilage. In: "Connective Tissue and Its Heritable Disorders." New York: Wiley-Liss, Inc., pp 73-84.
44. Ito Y, Bae S-C (1997): The runt domain transcription factor, PEBP2/CBF, and its involvement in human leukemia. In Yaniv M, Ghysdael J (eds): "Cell Cycle Regulators and Chromosomal Translocation." Switzerland: Birkhauser Verlag Basel, pp 107-132.
45. Jahnen-Dechent W, Schinke T, Trindl A, Muller-Esterl W, Sablitzky F, Kaiser S, Blessing M (1997): Cloning and targeted deletion of the mouse fetuin gene. J Biol Chem 272:31496-31503.
46. Johnson RL, Tabin CJ (1997): Molecular models for vertebrate limb development. Cell 90:979-990.
47. Johnson RS, Spiegelman BM, Papaioannou V (1992): Pleiotropic effects of a null mutation in the c-fos proto-oncogene. Cell 71:577-586.
48. Karaplis AC, Luz A, Glowacki J, Bronson RT, Tybulewicz VL, Kronenberg HM, Mulligan RC (1994): Lethal skeletal dysplasia from targeted disruption of the parathyroid hormone-related peptide gene. Genes Dev 8:277-289.
49. Katagiri T, Boorla S, Frendo J-L, Hogan BLM, Karsenty G (1998): Skeletal abnormalities in doubly heterozygous (Bmp4 and Bmp7) mice. Dev. Genet. 22:340-348.
50. Katagiri T, Yamaguchi A, Ikeda T, Yoshiki S, Wozney JM, Rosen V, Wang EA, Tanaka H, Omura S, Suda T (1990): The non-osteogenic mouse pluripotent cell line, C3H10T1/2, is induced to differentiate into osteoblastic cells by recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 172:295-299.
51. Kettunen P, Karavanova I, Thesleff I (1998): Responsiveness of developing dental tissues to fibroblast growth factors: expression of splicing alternatives of FGFR1, -2, -3, and of FGFR4; and stimulation of cell proliferation by FGF-2, -4, -8, and -9. Dev Genet 22:374-385.
52. Kingsley DM, Bland AE, Grubber JM, Marker PC, Russell LB, Copeland NG, Jenkins NA (1992): The mouse short ear skeletal morphogenesis locus is associated with defects in a bone morphogenetic member of the TGF beta superfamily. Cell 71:399-410.
53. Komori T, Yagi H, Nomura S, Yamaguchi A, Sasaki K, Deguchi K, Shimizu Y, Bronson RT, Gao YH, Inada M, Sato M, Okamoto R, Kitamura Y, Yoshiki S, Kishimoto T (1997): Targeted disruption of Cbfal results in a complete lack of bone formation owing to maturational arrest of osteoblasts. Cell 89:755-764.
54. Köntges G, Lumsden A (1996): Rhombencephalicneural crest segmentation is preserved throughout craniofacial ontogeny. Development 122:3229-3242.
55. Lanske B, Karaplis AC, Lee K, Luz A, Vortkamp A, Pirro A, Karperien M, Defize LHK, Ho C, Mulligan RC, Abou-Samra AB, Juppner H, Segre GV, Kronenberg HM (1996): PTH/PTHrP receptor in early development and Indian hedgehog-regulated bone growth. Science 273:663-666.
56. Laufer E, Nelson CE, Johnson RL, Morgan BA, Tabin C (1994): Sonic hedgehog and Fgf-4 act through a signaling cascade and feedback loop to integrate growth and patterning of the developing limb bud. Cell 79:993-1003.
57. Laufer E, Dahn R, Orozco OE, Yeo CY, Pisenti J, Henrique D, Abbott UK, Fallon JF, Tabin C (1997): Expression of Radical fringe in limb-bud ectoderm regulates apical ectodermal ridge formation. Nature 386:366-373.
58. Lee B, Thirunavukkarasu K, Zhou L, Pastore L, Baldini A, Hecht J, Geoffroy V, Ducy P, Karsenty G (1997): Missense mutations abolishing DNA binding of the osteoblast-specific transcription factor OSF2/CBFA1 in cleidocranial dysplasia. Nat Genet 16:307-310.
59. Lefebvre V, Huang W, Harley VR, Goodfellow PN, de Crombrugghe B (1997): SOX9 is a potent activator of the chondrocyte-specific enhancer of the pro alphal(II) collagen gene. Mol Cell Biol 17:2336-2346.
60. Li Y, Lacerda DA, Warman ML, Beier DR, Yoshioka H, Ninomiya Y, Oxford JT, Morris NP, Andrikopoulos K, Ramirez F, et al (1995): A fibrillar collagen gene, Col11a1, is essential for skeletal morphogenesis. Cell 80:423-430.
61. Lohnes D, Kastner P, Dierich A, Mark M, LeMeur M, Chambon P (1993): Function of retinoic acid receptor gamma in the mouse. Cell 73:643-658.
62. Loomis CA, Harris E, Michaud J, Wurst W, Hanks M, Joyner AL (1996): The mouse Engrailed-1 gene and ventral limb patterning. Nature 382:360-363.
63. Lowell CA, Soriano P (1996): Knockouts of Src-family kinases: stiff bones, wimpy T cells, and bad memories. Genes Dev 10:1845-1857.
64. Lui VC, Ng LJ, Nicholls J, Tam PP, Cheah KS (1995): Tissue-specific and differential expression of alternatively spliced alpha 1(II) collagen mRNAs in early human embryos. Dev Dyn 203:198-211.
65. Lumsden A, Sprawson N, Graham A (1991): Segmental origin and migration of neural crest cells in the hindbrain region of the chick embryo. Development 113:1281-1291.
66. Luo G, D'Souza R, Hogue D, Karsenty G (1995a): The matrix Gla protein gene is a marker of the chondrogenesis cell lineage during mouse development. J Bone Miner Res 10:325-334.
67. Luo G, Hofmann C, Bronckers AL, Sohocki M, Bradley A, Karsenty G (1995b): BMP-7 is an inducer of nephrogenesis, and is also required for eye development and skeletal patterning. Genes Dev 9:2808-2820.
68. Marks SC Jr (1973): Pathogenesis of osteopetrosis in the ia rat: reduced bone resorption due to reduced osteoclast function. Am J Anat 138:165-189.
69. Marigo V, Johnson RL, Vortkamp A, Tabin CJ (1996): Sonic hedgehog differentially regulates expression of GLI and GLI3 during limb development. Dev Biol 180:273-283.
70. Merriman HL, van Wijnen AJ, Hiebert S, Bidwell JP, Fey E, Lian J, Stein J, Stein GS (1995): The tissue-specific nuclear matrix protein, NMP-2, is a member of the AML/CBF/PEBP2/runt domain transcription factor family: interactions with the osteocalcin gene promoter. Biochemistry 34:13125-13132.
71. Mundlos S, Otto F, Mundlos C, Mulliken JB, Aylsworth AS, Albright S, Lindhout D, Cole WG, Henn W, Knoll JH, Owen MJ, Mertelsmann R, Zabel BU, Olsen BR (1997): Mutations involving the transcription factor CBFA1 cause cleidocranial dysplasia. Cell 89:773-779.
72. Naski MC, Wang Q, Xu J, Ornitz DM (1996): Graded activation of fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 by mutations causing achondroplasia and thanatophoric dysplasia. Nat Genet 13:233-237.
73. Ng LJ, Wheatley S, Muscat GE, Conway-Campbell J, Bowles J, Wright E, Bell DM, Tam PP, Cheah KS, Koopman P (1997): SOX9 binds DNA, activates transcription, and coexpresses with type II collagen during chondrogenesis in the mouse. Dev Biol 183:108-121.
74. Niswander L, Martin GR (1993a): FGF-4 and BMP-2 have opposite effects on limb growth. Nature 361:68-71.
75. Niswander L, Tickle C, Vogel A, Booth I, Martin GR (1993b): FGF-4 replaces the apical ectodermal ridge and directs outgrowth and patterning of the limb. Cell 75:579-587.
76. Niswander L, Jeffrey S, Martin GR, Tickle C (1994): A positive feedback loop coordinates growth and patterning in the vertebrate limb. Nature 371:609-612.
77. Olsen BR (1995): Mutations in collagen genes resulting in metaphyseal and epiphyseal dysplasias. Bone 17:45S-49S.
78. Ogawa E, Maruyama M, Kagoshima H, Inuzuka M, Lu J, Satake M, Shigesada K, Ito Y (1993): PEBP2/PEA2 represents a family of transcription factors homologous to the products of the Drosophila runt gene and the human AML1 gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:6859-6863.
79. Otto F, Thornell AP, Crompton T, Denzel A, Gilmour KC, Rosewell IR, Stamp GW, Beddington RS, Mundlos S, Olsen BR, Selby PB, Owen MJ (1997): Cbfa1, a candidate gene for cleidocranial dysplasia syndrome, is essential for osteoblast differentiation and bone development. Cell 89:765-771.
80. Parr BA, McMahon AP (1995): Dorsalizing signal Wnt-7a required for normal polarity of D-V and A-P axes of mouse limb. Nature 374:350-353.
81. Price PA, Urist MR, Otawara Y (1983): Matrix Gla protein, a new gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein which is associated with the organic matrix of bone. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 117:765-771.
82. Prockop DJ, Kivirikko KI (1995): Collagens: molecular biology, diseases, and potentials for therapy. Annu Rev Biochem 64:403-434.
83. Reddi AH (1994): Bone and cartilage differentiation. Curr Opin Genet Dev 4:737-744.
84. Riddle RD, Johnson RL, Laufer E, Tabin C (1993): Sonic hedgehog mediates the polarizing activity of the ZPA. Cell 75:1401-1416.
85. Rodriguez-Esteban C, Schwabe JW, De La Pena J, Foys B, Eshelman B, Belmonte JC (1997): Radical fringe positions the apical ectodermal ridge at the dorsoventral boundary of the vertebrate limb. Nature 386:360-366.
86. Ryan MC, Sandell LJ (1990): Differential expression of a cystein-rich domain in the amino-terminal propeptide of type II (cartilage) procollagen by alternative splicing of mRNA. J Biol Chem 265:10334-10339.
87. Sandell LJ, Morris N, Robbins JR, Goldring MB (1991): Alternatively spliced type II procollagen mRNAs define distinct populations of cells during vertebral development: differential expression of the amino-propeptide. J Cell Biol 114:1307-1319.
88. Satake M, Nomura S, Yamaguchi-Iwai Y, Takahama Y, Hashimoto Y, Niki M, Kitamura Y, Ito Y (1995): Expression of the Runt domain-encoding PEBP2 alpha genes in T cells during thymic development. Mol Cell Biol 15:1662-1670.
89. Saunders, JW, Gasseling, M (1968): Ectodermal-mesenchymal interaction in the origin of the limb. In Fleischmayer, Billingham RE (eds): "Epithelial-Mesenchymal interaction." Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, pp 78-97.
90. Schipani E, Kruse K, Juppner H (1995): A constitutively active mutant PTH-PTHrP receptor in Jansen-type metaphyseal chondrodysplasia. Science 268:98-100.
91. Schultheiss TM, Burch JB, Lassar AB (1997): A role for bone morphogenetic proteins in the induction of cardiac myogenesis. Genes Dev 11:451-462.
92. Schwartzberg PL, Xing L, Hoffmann O, Lowell CA, Garrett L, Boyce BF, Varmus HE (1997): Rescue of osteoclast function by transgenic expression of kinase-deficient Src in src-/-mutant mice. Genes Dev 11:2835-2844.
93. Searls RL, Janners MY (1971): The initiation of limb bud outgrowth in the embryonic chick. Dev Biol 24:198-213.
94. Shiang R, Thompson LM, Zhu YZ, Church DM, Fielder TJ, Bocian M, Winokur ST, Wasmuth JJ (1994): Mutations in the transmembrane domain of FGFR3 cause the most common genetic form of dwarfism, achondroplasia. Cell 78:335-342.
95. Simeone A, Daga A, Calabi F (1995): Expression of runt in the mouse embryo. Dev Dyn 203:61-70.
96. Simonet WS, Lacey DL, Dunstan CR, Kelley M, Chang MS, Luthy R, Nguyen HQ, Wooden S, Bennett L, Boone T, Shimamoto G, DeRose M, Elliott R, Colombero A, Tan HL, Trail G, Sullivan J, Davy E, Bucay N, Renshaw-Gegg L, Hughes TM, Hill D, Pattison W, Campbell P, Boyle WJ (1997): Osteoprotegerin: a novel secreted protein involved in the regulation of bone density. Cell 89:309-319.
97. Solloway MJ, Dudley AT, Bikoff EK, Lyons KM, Hogan BLM, Robertson EJ (1998): Mice lacking Bmp6 function. Dev Genet 22:321-339.
98. Soriano P, Montgomery C, Geske R, Bradley A (1991): Targeted disruption of the c-src proto-oncogene leads to osteopetrosis in mice. Cell 64:693-702.
99. Spörle R, Schughart K (1998): Paradox segmentation along inter- and intrasomitic borderlines is followed by dysmorphology of the axial skeleton in the open brain (opb) mouse mutant. Dev Genet 22:359-373.
100. Storm EE, Huynh TV, Copeland NG, Jenkins NA, Kingsley DM, Lee SJ (1994): Limb alterations in brachypodism mice due to mutations in a new member of the TGF beta-superfamily. Nature 368:639-643.
101. Sunters A, McCluskey J, Grigoriadis AE (1998): Control of cell cycle gene expression in bone development and during c-Fos-induced osteosarcoma formation. Dev Genet 22:386-398.
102. Suva LJ, Winslow GA, Wettenhall RE, Hammonds RG, Moseley JM, Diefenbach-Jagger H, Rodda CP, Kemp BE, Rodriguez H, Chen EY (1987): A parathyroid hormone-related protein implicated in malignant hypercalcemia: cloning and expression. Science 237:893-896.
103. Suzuki A, Kaneko E, Ueno N, Hemmati-Brivanlou A (1997): Regulation of epidermal induction by BMP2 and BMP7 signaling. Dev Biol 189:112-122.
104. Teitelbaum SL, Abu-Amer Y, Ross FP (1995): Molecular mechanisms of bone resorption. J Cell Biochem 59:1-10.
105. Thomas JT, Lin K, Nandedkar M, Camargo M, Cervenka J, Luyten FP (1996): A human chondrodysplasia due to a mutation in a TGF-beta superfamily member. Nat Genet 12:315-317.
106. Thomas JT, Kilpatrick MW, Lin K, Erlacher L, Lembessis P, Costa T, Tsipouras P, Luyten FP (1997): Disruption of human limb morphogenesis by a dominant negative mutation in CDMP1. Nat Genet 17:58-64.
107. Thorogood P (1993): Differentiation and morphogenesis of cranial skeletal tissues. In Hanken J, Hall BK (eds): "The Skull." Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
108. Tondravi MM, McKercher SR, Anderson K, Erdmann JM, Quiroz M, Maki R, Teitelbaum SL (1997): Osteopetrosis in mice lacking haematopoietic transcription factor PU.1. Nature 386:81-84.
109. Urist MR (1965): Bone: formation by autoinduction. Science 150:893-899.
110. Vikkula M, Mariman EC, Lui VC, Zhidkova NI, Tiller GE, Goldring MB, van Beersum SE, de Waal Malefijt MC, van den Hoogen FH, Ropers HH (1995): Autosomal dominant and recessive osteochondrodysplasias associated with the COL11A2 locus. Cell 80:431-437.
111. Vortkamp A, Lee K, Lanske B, Segre GV, Kronenberg HM, Tabin CJ (1996): Regulation of rate of cartilage differentiation by Indian hedgehog and PTH-related protein. Science 273:613-622.
112. Wang EA, Rosen V, D'Alessandro JS, Bauduy M, Cordes P, Harada T, Israel DI, Hewick RM, Kerns KM, LaPan P (1990): Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein induces bone formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87:2220-2224.
113. Wang Q, Stacy T, Binder M, Marin-Padilla M, Sharpe AH, Speck NA (1996): Disruption of the Cbfa2 gene causes necrosis and hemorrhaging in the central nervous system and blocks definitive hematopoiesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93:3444-3449.
114. Wagner T, Wirth J, Meyer J, Zabel B, Held M, Zimmer J, Pasantes J, Bricarelli FD, Keutel J, Hustert E (1994): Autosomal sex reversal and campomelic dysplasia are caused by mutations in and around the SRY-related gene SOX9. Cell 79:1111-1120.
115. Wai AWK, Ng LJ, Watanabe H, Yamada Y, Tam PPL, Cheah KSE (1998): Disrupted expression of matrix genes in the growth plate of the mouse cartilage matrix deficiency (cmd) mutant. Dev Genet 22:349-358.
116. Wang ZQ, Ovitt C, Grigoriadis AE, Mohle-Steinlein U, Ruther U, Wagner EF (1992): Bone and haematopoietic defects in mice lacking c-fos. Nature 360:741-745.
117. Warman ML, Abbott M, Apte SS, Hefferon T, McIntosh I, Cohn DH, Hecht JT, Olsen BR, Francomano CA (1993): A type X collagen mutation causes Schmid metaphyseal chondrodysplasia. Nat Genet 5:79-82.
118. Wilson PA, Hemmati-Brivanlou A (1995): Induction of epidermis and inhibition of neural fate by Bmp-4. Nature 376:331-333.
119. Wozney JM, Rosen V, Celeste AJ, Mitsock LM, Whitters MJ, Kriz RW, Hewick RM, Wang EA (1988): Novel regulators of bone formation: molecular clones and activities. Science 242:1528-1534.
120. Yoshida H, Hayashi S, Kunisada T, Ogawa M, Nishikawa S, Okamura H, Sudo T, Shultz LD, Nishikawa S (1990): The murine mutation osteopetrosis is in the coding region of the macrophage colony stimulating factor gene. Nature 345:442-444.
121. Zhao Q, Eberspaecher H, Lefebvre V, De Crombrugghe B (1997): Parallel expression of Sox9 and Col2a1 in cells undergoing chondrogenesis. Dev Dyn 209:377-386.