New developments in forest modeling: Convergence between applied and theoretical approaches

Natural Resource Modeling

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 71-102

  Lischke, H ^a  

^a SWISS FEDERAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE WSL   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Aggregation; Forest model; General formulation; Review; Simplification; Structural variability; Upscaling

Indexed keywords

EID: 0002450646     PISSN: 08908575     EISSN: 19397445     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-7445.2001.tb00051.x     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. M.F. Acevedo, D.L. Urban and H.H. Shugart [1996], Models of Forest Dynamics Based on Roles of Tree Species, Ecological Modelling 87, 267–284.
2. J.D. Arney [1974], An Individual Tree Model for Stand Simulation in Douglas-Fir, in Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation. Internat. Union of Forestry Research Organizations, Working party S4.01–4, Proc. of Meetings in 1973 (J. Fries, ed.), Research Notes 30, Royal College of Forestry, Dept. of Forest Yield, Stockholm, 38–46.
3. N.V. Belotelov, B.G. Bogatyrev, A.P. Kirilenko and S.V. Venevsky [1996], Modelling of Time-Dependent Biome Shifts under Global Climate Changes, Ecological Modelling 87, 29–40.
4. B.M. Bolker and S.W. Pacala [1997], Using Moment Equations to Understand Stochstically Driven Spatial Pattern Formation in Ecological Systems, Theoret. Population Biol. 52, 179–197.
5. B.M. Bolker and S.W. Pacala [1999], Spatial Moment Equations for Plant Competition: Understanding Spatial Strategies and the Advantages of Short Dispersal, Amer. Naturalist 153, 575–602.
6. B.M. Bolker, S.W. Pacala and S.A. Levin [1997], Moment Methods for Stochastic Processes in Continuous Space and Time, in Low-Dimensional Dynamics of Spatial Ecological Systems (O. Diekmann and J. Metz, eds.), Laxenburg.
7. H. Bossel [1987], A Dynamic Simulation Model of Tree Development under Pollution Stress, 2nd Ebernburger Working Conf., Erwin-Riesch-Workshop System Analysis of Biological Processes, (D.P.F. Möller, ed.), in Advances in Systems Analysis of Biological Processes Bad Münster am Stein-Ebernburg, Bieweg, Braunschweig, 46–58.
8. H. Bossel [1991], Modelling Forest Dynamics: Moving from Description to Explanation, Forest Ecology Manage. 42, 129–142.
9. H. Bossel [1996], TREEDYN3 Forest Simulation Model, Ecological Modelling 90.
10. H. Bossel and H. Krieger [1991], Simulation Model of Natural Tropical Forest Dynamics, Ecological Modelling 59, 37–71.
11. H. Bossel and H. Krieger [1994], Simulation of Multi-Species Tropical Forest Dynamics Using a Vertically and Horizontally Structured Model, Forest Ecology Manage. 69, 123–144.
12. H. Bossel, H. Krieger, H. Schäfer and N. Trost [1991], Simulation of Forest Stand Dynamics Using Real-Structure Process Models, Forest Ecology Manage. 42, 3–21.
13. D.B. Botkin, J.F. Janak and J.R. Wallis [1970], A Simulator for Northeastern Forest Growth: A Contribution of the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study and IBM Research, Technical Report, IBM Research Report No. 3140.
14. D.B. Botkin, J.F. Janak and J.R. Wallis [1972a], Rationale, Limitations and Assumptions of a Northeastern Forest Growth Simulator, IBM J. Research Development 16, 101–116.
15. D.B. Botkin, J.F. Janak and J.R. Wallis [1972b], Some Ecological Consequences of a Computer Model of Forest Growth, J. Ecology 60, 849–872.
16. B. Brzeziecki, F. Kienast and O. Wildi [1993], A Simulated Map of the Potential Natural Forest Vegetation of Switzerland, J. Vegetation Science 4, 499–508.
17. B. Brzeziecki, F. Kienast and O. Wildi [1995], Modelling Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the Spatial Distribution of Zonal Forest Communities in Switzerland, J. Vegetation Science 6, 257–268.
18. H. Bugmann [1994], On the Ecology of Mountainous Forests in a Changing Climate: A Simulation Study, Diss. ETH Nr. 10638, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich.
19. H. Bugmann [1996a], Functional Types of Trees in Temperate and Boreal Forests: Classification and Testing, J. Vegetation Science 7, 359–370.
20. H. Bugmann [1996b], A Simplified Forest Model to Study Species Composition along Climate Gradients, Ecology 77, 2055–2074.
21. H. Bugmann [1997], Sensitivity of Forests in the European Alps to Future Climatic Change, Climate Research 8, 35–44.
22. H. Bugmann and A. Fischlin [1994], Comparing the Behaviour of Mountainous Forest Succession Models in a Changing Climate, in Mountain Environments in Changing Climates, 237–255.
23. H. Bugmann and A. Fischlin [1996], Simulating Forest Dynamics in a Complex Topography Using Gridded Climatic Data, Climatic Change 34, 289–313.
24. H. Bugmann, R. Grote, P. Lasch, M. Lindner and F. Suckow [1997], A New Forest Gap Model to Study the Effects of Environmental Change on Forest Structure and Functioning, in Impacts of Global Change on Tree Physiology and Forest Ecosystems: Proc. of the Internat. Conf. on Impacts of Global Change on Tree Physiology and Forest Ecosystems, (G.M.J. Mohren, K. Kramer and S. Sabate, eds.), Kluwer, Dordrecht.
25. H. Bugmann and A.M. Solomon [1995], The Use of a European Forest Model in North America: A Study of Ecosystem Response to Climate Gradients, J. Biogeography 22, 477–484.
26. H. Bugmann, X. Yan, M. Sykes, P. Martin, M. Lindner, P. Desanker and S. Cum-ming [1996], A Comparison of Forest Gap Models: Model Structure and Behavior, Climatic Change 34, 289–313.
27. P.J. Burton and S.G. Cumming [1995], Potential Effects of Climatic Change on Some Western Canadian Forests, Based on Phenological Enhancements to a Patch Model of Forest Succession, Water Air Soil Pollution 82, 401–414.
28. R.T. Busing [1991], A Spatial Model of Forest Dynamics, Vegetatio 92, 167–180.
29. I.D. Campbell and J.H. McAndrews [1993], Forest Disequilibrium Caused by Rapid Little Ice Age Cooling, Nature (London) 366, 336–338.
30. O.G. Chertov, A.S. Komarov and G.P. Karev [1999], Modern Approaches in Forest Ecosystem Modelling, Brill, Leiden.
31. J.L. Clutter and B.J. Allison [1974], A Growth and Yield Model for Pinus radiata in NewZealand, in Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation, Internat. Union of Forestry Research Orgs (J. Fries, ed.), Research Notes 30, Royal College of Forestry, Dept. of Forest Yield, Stockholm, 136–160.
32. V.H. Dale, T.W. Doyle and H.H. Shugart [1985], A Comparison of Tree Growth Models, Ecological Modelling 29, 145–169.
33. V.H. Dale and H.M. Rauscher [1994], Assessing Impacts of Climate Change on Forests: The State of Biological Modeling, Climatic Change 28, 65–90.
34. R.F. Daniels and H.E. Burkhart [1988], An Integrated System of Forest Stand Models, Forest Ecology Manage. 23, 159–177.
35. D. Deutschmann [1998], Emergent Dynamics in a Forest Model: The Role of Local Competition and Limited Dispersal in Mediating Broad-Scale Patterns in SORTIE, Paper presented at First Internat. Conf. on Mathematical Ecology, Alcalá de Henares, Spain.
36. R. Durrett and S.A. Levin [1994], The Importance of Being Discrete (and Spatial), Theoret. Population Biol. 46, 363–394.
37. A.R. Ek and R.A. Monserud [1974], Trials with Program FOREST: Growth and Reproduction Simulation for Mixed Species Even- or Uneven-Aged Forest Stands, in Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation, Internat. Union of Forestry Research Orgs., Working party S4.01–4, Proc. of Meetings in 1973, (J. Fries, ed.), Research Notes 30, Royal College of Forestry, Dept. of Forest Yield, Stockholm, 56–73.
38. V. Erni and R. Lemm [1995], Ein Simulationsmodell für den Forstbetrieb Entwurf, Realisierung und Anwendung, Berichte der Eidgenössischen Anstalt für das Forstliche Versuchswesen 384, 1995.
39. A. Fischlin, H. Bugmann and D. Gyalistras [1995], Sensitivity of a Forest Ecosystem Model to Climate Parametrization Schemes, Environ. Pollution 87, 267–282.
40. J.A. Foley [1994], Net Primary Productivity in the Terrestrial Biosphere: The Application of a Global Model, J. Geophys. Research 99, 20773–20783.
41. A.D. Friend, H.H. Shugart and S.W. Running [1993], A Physiology-Based Gap Model of Forest Dynamics, Ecology 74, 792–797.
42. A.D. Friend, A.K. Stevens, R.G. Know and M.G.R. Cannell [1997], A Process-Based, Terrestrial Biosphere Model of Ecosystem Dynamics (Hybrid v3.0), Ecological Modelling 96, 249–287.
43. M.R. Fulton [1991], A Computationally Efficient Forest Succession Model: Design and Initial Tests, Forest Ecology Manage. 42, 23–34.
44. R. Grote, G. Bürger and F. Suckow [1998], Simulated Impacts of Mean vs. Intra-Annual Climate Changes on Forests, The Impacts of Climate Variability on Forests, 74, 255–272.
45. A. Guisan, J.-P. Theurillat and F. Kienst [1998], Predicting the Potential Distribution of Plant Species in an Alpine Environment, J. Vegetation Science 9, 65–74.
46. A. Guisan, S.B. Weiss and A.D. Weiss [1999], GLM versus CCA Spatial Modeling of Plant Species Distribution, Plant Ecology 143, 107–122.
47. A. Guisan and N.E. Zimmermann [2000], On the Use of Static Distribution Models in Ecology, Ecological Modelling 135, 147–186.
48. H. Hasenauer and R.A. Monserud [1996], A Crown Ratio Model for Austrian Forests, Forest Ecology Manage. 84, 49–60.
49. M. Hauhs, A. Kastner-Maresch and K. Rost-Siebert [1995], A Model Relating Forest Growth to Ecosystem-Scale Budgets of Energy and Nutrients, Ecological Modelling 83, 229–243.
50. A. Haxeltine and I.C. Prentice [1996], BIOME3: An Equilibrium Terrestrial Biosphere Model Based on Ecophysiological Constraints, Resource Availability and Competition among Plant Functional Types, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 10, 693–709.
51. L.R. Holdridge [1947], Determination of World Plant Formations from Simple Climatic Data, Science 105, 367–369.
52. H.S. Horn [1975], Forest Succession, Scientific American 232, 90–98.
53. G.C. Hurtt, P.R. Moorcroft, S.W. Pacala and S.A. Levin [1998], Terrestrial Models and Global Change: Challenges for the Future, Global Change Biology 4, 581–590.
54. M.A. Hutson [1991], Use of Individual-Based Forest Succession Models to Link Physiological Whole-Tree Models to Landscape-Scale Ecosystem Models, Tree Physiology 9, 293–306.
55. G. Karev [2001], Structured Models of Pattern Formation of Tree Populations, Natur. Resource Modeling 14, 31–43.
56. G.P. Karev [1994], Structural Models for Natural Forest Dynamics, Doklady Biological Sciences: Proc. of the Acad. of Sciences of the USSR 337, 354–356.
57. G.P. Karev [1997], On the Ergodic Hypothesis in Biocenology, Doklady Biological Sciences 353, 572–574.
58. E. Kaufmann [in press], Prognosen und Nutzungsszenarien, in Schweizerisches Landesforstinventar: Methoden und Modelle der Zweitaufnahme 19931995 (P. Brassel and H. Lischke, eds.), Eidg. Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Land-schaft, Birmensdorf, 1999.
59. S. Kellomäki, H. Väisänen, H. Hänninen, T. Kolström, R. Lauhanen, U. Mattila and B. Pajari [1992], SIMA: A Model for Forest Succession Based on the Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles with Application to Silvicultural Management of the Forest Ecosystem, Silva Carelica 22, 1–85.
60. F. Kienast [1987], FORECE–A Forest Succession Model for Southern Central Europe, Technical Report ORNL-TM/10575, Oakridge Natl. Laboratories, Environmental Division, Oakridge, TN.
61. F. Kienast, B. Brzeziecki and O. Wildi [1996], Long-Term Adaptation Potential of Central Europe Mountain Forests to Climate Change: A GIS-Assisted Sensitivity Assessment, Forest Ecology Manage. 80, 133–153.
62. M. Kirkilionis [1998], Modelling Forests: On Stochastic Processes Modelling Tree Distributions, Paper presented at First Internat. Confer. on Mathematical Ecology, Sept. 1998, Alcalá de Henares, Spain.
63. M. Kirkilionis, C. Bauch and D. Rand [1999], Cluster Dynamics: Population Models with Stationary Individuals, in Preparation.
64. P. K. öhler and A. Huth [1998], The Effects of Tree Species Grouping in Tropical Rainforest Modelling: Simulations with the Individual Based Model FORMIND, Ecological Modelling 109, 301–321.
65. G.H. Kohlmaier, Ch. Häger, G. Würth, M.K.B. Lüdeke, P. Ramge, F.W. Badeck, J. Kindermann and T. Lang [1995], Effects of Age Class Distributions of the Temperate and Boreal Forests on the Global CO2 Source-Sink Function, Tellus 47B, 212–231.
66. T. Kohyama [1991], Simulating Stationary Size Distribution of Trees in Rain Forests, Annals of Botany 68, 173–180.
67. T. Kohyama [1993], Size-Structured Tree Populations in Gap-Dynamic Forest: The Forest Architecture Hypothesis for the Stable Coexistence of Species, J. Ecology 84, 207–218.
68. T. Kohyama and T. Hara [1989], Frequency Distribution of Tree Growth Rate in Natural Forest Stands, Annals of Botany 64, 47–58.
69. M.D. Korzukhin, M.T. TerMikaelian and R.G. Wagner [1996], Process versus Empirical Models: Which Approach for Forest Ecosystem Management ?, Canad. J. Forest Research 26, 879–887.
70. E. Kraev [1998], A Partial Differential Equation Modeling Forest Growth, Master Thesis, Institute of Mathematics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich.
71. E.A. Kraev [2001], Existence and Uniqueness for Height Structured Hierarchical Population Models, Natur. Resource Modeling 14, 45–70.
72. N. Kräuchi and F. Kienast [1993], Modelling Subalpine Forest Dynamics as Influenced by a Changing Environment, Water Air and Soil Pollution 68, 185–197.
73. T. Kubo, Y. Iwasa and N. Furumoto [1996], Forest Spatial Dynamics with Gap Expansion: Total Gap Area and Gap Size Distribution, J. Theoret. Biology 180, 229–246.
74. P. Kuerpick, U. Kuerpick and A. Huth [1997], The Influence of Logging on a Malaysian Dipterocarp Rain Forest: A Study Using a Forest Gap Model, J. Theoret. Biology 185, 47–54.
75. R. Leemans and I.C. Prentice [1989], FORSKA, A General Forest Succession Model, Technical Report, Institute of Ecological Botany.
76. R. Leemans and G.J. van-den Born [1994], Determining the Potential Distribution of Vegetation, Crops and Agricultural Productivity, Water Air and Soil Pollution 76, 133–161.
77. S.A. Levin [1992], The Problem of Pattern and Scale in Ecology, Ecology 73, 1943–1967.
78. J.Y. Lin [1974], Stand Growth Simulation Models for Douglas-Fir and Western Hemlock in the Northwestern United States, in Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation, Internat. Union Forestry Research Orgs., Working party S4.01–4, Proc. of Meeting in 1973 (J. Fries, ed.), Research Notes 30, Royal College of Forestry, Dept. of Forest Yield, Stockholm.
79. H. Lischke [1998], Veränderungen der Artenzusammensetzung der Schweizer Wälder bei einem schnellen Klimawechsel: Simulationsstudien, Bulletin: Kompe-tenzzentrum Holz 6, 12–14.
80. H. Lischke, A. Fischlin and A. Lotter [to appear], Untangling a Holocene Pollen Record with Forest Model Simulations and Independent Climate Data, Ecological Modelling, submitted.
81. H. Lischke, A. Guisan, A. Fischlin, J. Williams and H. Bugmann [1998a], Vegetation Responses to Climate Change in the Alps–Modeling Studies, in A View from the Alps: Regional Perspectives on Climate Change (P. Cebon, U. Dahinden, H. Davies, D. Imboden and C. Jaeger, eds.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 309–350.
82. H. Lischke, T.J. Löffler and A. Fischlin [1998b], Aggregation of Individual Trees and Patches in Forest Succession Models–Capturing Variability with Height Structured Random Dispersions, Theoret. Population Biol. 54, 213–226.
83. J.G. Liu and P.S. Ashton [1998], FORMOSAIC: An Individual Based, Spatially Explicit Model for Simulating Forest Dynamics in Landscape Mosaics, Ecological Modelling 106, 177–200.
84. T.J. Löffler and H. Lischke [2001], Incorporation and Influence of Variability in an Aggregated Forest Model, Natur. Resource Modeling 14, 103–137.
85. A.F. Lotter and F. Kienast [1992], Validation of a Forest Succession Model by Means of Annually Laminated Sediments, in INQUA Workshop on Laminated Sediments, Special paper series, Geological Survey of Finland, Lammi, Finland, 25–31.
86. M.K.B. Lüdecke, F.-W. Badeck, R.D. Otto, C. Häger, S. Dönges, J. Kindermann, G. Würth, T. Lang, U. Jäkel, A. Klaudius, P. Ramge, S. Habermehl and G.H. Kohlmaier [1994], The Frankfurt Biosphere Model: A Global Process-Oriented Model of Seasonal and Long-Term CO2 Exchange between Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Atmosphere, I. Model Description and Illustrative Results for Cold Deciduous and Boreal Forests, Climate Research 4, 143–166.
87. G.P. Malanson [1996], Effects of Dispersal and Mortality on Diversity in Forest Stand Model, Ecological Modelling 87, 102–110.
88. S.C. Manrubia and R.V. Sole [1997], On Forest Spatial Dynamics with Gap Formation, J. Theoret. Biol. 187, 159–164.
89. J.M. Melillo, A.D. McGuire, D.W. Kicklighter, B.Moore III, C.J. Vorosmarty and A.L. Schloss [1993], Global Climate Change and Terrestrial Net Primary Production, Nature (London) 363, 234–240.
90. J.A.J. Metz and O. Diekmann, eds. [1986], The Dynamics of Physiologically Structured Populations 68, Springer, Berlin.
91. K.J. Mitchell [1975], Dynamics and Simulated Yield of Douglas Fir, Forest Science Monographs 17, 39.
92. David Mladenoff, George E. Host, Joel Boeder and Thomas R. Crow [1993], LANDIS: A Spatial Model of Forest Landscape Disturbance, Succession, and Management, in Environmental Modeling with GIS (M.F. Goodchild, B.O. Parks and L.T. Steyaert, eds.), Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
93. M. Moeur [1997], Spatial Models of Competition and Gap Dynamics in Old, Growth Tsuga Heterophylla/Thuja Plicata Forests, Forest Ecology Manage. 94, 175–186.
94. D.D. Munro [1974], Forest Growth Models A prognosis, in Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation, Internat. Union of Forestry Research Orgs., Working party S4.01–4, Proc. of Meetings in 1973 (J. Fries, ed.), Research Notes 30, Royal College of Forestry, Dept. of Forest Yield, Stockholm, 7–21.
95. R.P. Neilson [1995], A Model for Predicting Continental-Scale Vegetation Distribution and Water Balance, Ecol. Appl. 5, 362–385.
96. S.W. Pacala, C.D. Canham, J. Saponara, J.A. Silander, R.K. Kobe and E. Ribbens [1996], Forest Models Defined by Field Measurements: Estimation, Error Analysis and Dynamics, Ecolog. Monographs 66, 1–43.
97. S.W. Pacala, C.D. Canham and J.A. Silander, Jr. [1993], Forest Models Defined by Field Measurements: I. The Design of a Northeastern Forest Simulator, Canad. J. Forest Research 23, 1980–1988.
98. S.W. Pacala and D.H. Deutschman [1995], Details that Matter: The Spatial Distribution of Individual Trees Maintains Forest Ecosystem Function, OIKOS 74, 357–365.
99. J. Pastor and W.M. Post [1986], Influence of Climate, Soil Moisture, and Succession on Forest Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles, Biogeochemistry 2, 3–27.
100. A. Perruchoud and D. Fischlin [1995], The Response of the Carbon Cycle in Undisturbed Forest Ecosystems to Climate Change: A Reviewof Plant-Soil Models, J. Biogeography 22, 2603–2618.
101. N. Picard, A. Bar-Hen and A. Franc [2001], Spatial Pattern Induced by Asymmetric Competition: A Modeling Approach, Natur. Resource Modeling 14, 147–175.
102. C.S. Potter, J.T. Tanderson, C.B. Field, P.A. Matson, P.M. Vitousek, H.A. Mooney and S.A. Klooster [1993], Terrestrial Ecosystem Production: A Process Model Based on Global Satellite and Surface Data, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 7, 811–841.
103. I.C. Prentice, W. Cramer, S.P. Harrison, R. Leemans, R.A. Monserud and A.M. Solomon [1992], A Global Biome Model Based on Plant Physiology and Dominance, Soil Properties and Climate, J. Biogeography 19, 117–134.
104. I.C. Prentice, M.T. Sykes and W. Cramer [1993], A Simulation Model for the Transient Effects of Climate Change on Forest Landscapes, Ecological Modelling 65, 51–70.
105. H. Pretzsch, Konzeption und Konstruktion von Wuchsmodellen für Rein- und Mischbestände, Technical Report, Forstwissenschaftliche Fakultät der Universität München und der bayer. Forstlichen Versuchs- und Forschungsanstalt.
106. D.W. Roberts [1996], Landscape Vegetation Modelling with Vital Attributes and Fuzzy Systems Theory, Ecological Modelling 90, 175–184.
107. S.W. Running and S.T. Gower [1991], Fore s t-BGC, A General Model of Forest Ecosystem Processes for Regional Applications. II. Dynamic Carbon Allocation and Nitrogen Budgets, Tree Physiology 9, 147–160.
108. M.G. Ryan, E.R. Hunt, Jr, R.E. McMurtrie, G.I. Agren, J.D. Aber, A.D. Friend, E.B. Rastetter, W.M. Pulliam, R.J. Raison and S. Linder [1996], Comparing Models of Ecosystem Function for Temperate Conifer Forests. I. Model Description and Validation, in Global Change: Effects on Coniferous Forests and Grasslands, SCOPE (A.I. Breymeyer, D.O. Hall, J.M. Melillo and G.I. Agren, eds.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester 313–362.
109. J. Saldana and M. Kirkilonis [1999], Modelling Forests: Height Structured Trees, Paper presented at First Internat. Conf. on Mathematical Ecology, Alcalá de Henares, Spain.
110. H.H. Shugart [1984], A Theory of Forest Dynamics: The Ecological Implications of Forest Succession Models, Springer-Verlag, New York.
111. H.H. Shugart and T.M. Smith [1996], A Reviewof Forest Patch Models and their Application to Global Change Research, Climatic Change 34, 131–153.
112. H.H. Shugart and D.C. West [1977], Development of an Appalachian Deciduous Forest Succession Model and Its Application to Assessment of the Impact of the Chestnut Blight, J. Environ. Econom. Manage. 5, 161–179.
113. T.M. Smith and M.A. Huston [1989], A Theory of the Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Plant Communities, Vegetatio 83, 49–69.
114. T.M. Smith and D.L. Urban [1988], Scale and Resolution of Forest Structural Pattern, Vegetatio 74, 143–150.
115. A.M. Solomon [1986], Transient Response of Forests to CO2-Induced Climate Change: Simulation Modeling Experiments in Eastern North America, Oecologia 68, 567–579.
116. A.M. Solomon and P.J. Bartlein [1992], Past and Future Climate Change: Response by Mixed Deciduous-Coniferous Forest Ecosystems in Northern Michigan, Canad. J. Forest Research 22, 1727–1738.
117. A.M. Solomon and M.L. Tharp [1985], Simulation Experiments with Late Quaternary Carbon Storage in Mid-Latitude Forest Communities, in The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO2: Natural Variations Archean to Present (E.T. Sundquist and W.S. Broecker, eds.), 32, Amer. Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C, 235–250.
118. A.M. Solomon, D.C. West and J.A. Solomon [1981], Simulating the Role of Climate Change and Species Immigration in Forest Succession, in Forest Succession: Concepts and Application (D.C. West, H.H. Shugart and D.B. Botkin, eds.), Springer, New York, Heidelberg.
119. K.A. Sorrensen-Cothern, E.D. Ford and D.G. Sprugel [1993], A Model of Competition Incorporating Plasticity through Modular Foliage and Crown Development, Ecolog. Monographs 63, 277–304.
120. T. Suzuki and T. Umemura [1974], Forest Transition as a Stochastic Process, in Growth Models for Tree and Stand Simulation, Internat. Union of Forestry Research Orgs., Working party S4.01–4, Proc. of Meetings in 1973 (J. Fries, ed.), Royal College of Forestry, Dept. of Forest Yield, Stockholm, 358–379.
121. A. Talkkari and H. Hypen [1996], Development and Assessment of a Gap-Type Model to Predict the Effects of Climate Change on Forests Based on Spatial Forest Data, Forest Ecol. Manage. 83, 217–228.
122. A. Tiktak and H.J.M. Van Grinsven [1995], Reviewof Sixteen Forest-Soil-Atmosphere Models, Ecolog. Modelling 83, 35–53.
123. D.L. Urban, G.B. Bonan, T.M. Smith and H.H. Shugart [1991], Spatial Applications of Gap Models, Forest Ecol. Manage. 42, 95–110.
124. D.L. Urban and H.H. Shugart [1989], Forest Response to Climate Change: A Simulation Study for Southeastern Forests, in The Potential Effects of Global Climate Change on the United States (D. Smith and J.B. Tirpak, eds.) 3, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C, 1–45.
125. J. Vandermeer [1996], Disturbance and Neutral Competition Theory in Rain Forest Dynamics, Ecolog. Modelling 85, 99–111.
126. S. Will-Wolf and D.W. Roberts [1993], Fire and Succession in Oak-Maple Upland Forests: A Modeling Approach Based on Vital Attributes, in John T. Curtis: 50 Years of Wisconsin Plant Ecology, (J.S. Fralish, R.P. McIntosh and O.L. Loucks, eds.), Special Issue, Wisconsin Acad. of Science, Arts and Letters, Madison, WI, 217–236.
127. M. Williams [1996], A Three-Dimensional Model of Forest Development and Competition, Ecolog. Modelling 89, 73–98.
128. F.I. Woodward and T.M. Smith [1994], Predictions and Measurements of the Maximum Photosynthetic Rate at the Global Scale, in Ecophysiology of Photosynthesis (E.D. Schulze and M.M. Caldwell, eds.), Ecological Studies 100, Springer, New York, 491–509.
129. F.I. Woodward, T.M. Smith and W.R. Emmanuel [1995], A Global Land Primary Productivity and Phytogeography Model, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9, 471–490.
130. X. Yan and S. Zhao [1995], Simulating the Carbon Storage Dynamics of Temperate Broadleaved Coniferous Mixed Forest Ecosystems: I. Dynamics of the Tree Layer of Broadleaved Korean Pine Forests in the Chagbai Mountains, Chinese J. Ecology 14, 6–12 (in Chinese).