Non-conventional liquid crystals - The importance of micro-segregation for self-organisation

Journal of Materials Chemistry

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 1998, Pages 1485-1508

  Tschierske, Carsten ^a  

^a MARTIN LUTHER UNIVERSITY HALLE WITTENBERG   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001454691     PISSN: 09599428     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1039/a800946e     Document Type: Article

References (236)

1. Reviews: (a) H. Stegemeyer, Topics in Physical Chemistry, vol. 3, Liquid Crystals, Steinkopf Darmstadt, Springer, New York, 1994;
2. (b) G. W. Gray and J. W. Goodby, Smectic Liquid Crystals, Leonard Hill, Glasgow, London, 1984.
3. There is also a dependence on pressure: S. Urban and A. Würflinger, Adv. Chem. Phys., vol. XCVIII, ed. I. Prigogine and S. A. Rice, John Wiley, New York 1997, p. 143.
4. B. Bahadur, Liquid Crystal - Applications and Uses, vol. 1-3, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore, 1990-1992.
5. T. J. Bunning and F.-H. Kreuzer, Trends Polym. Sci., 1995, 3, 318.
6. F. Schambil, S. Paasch and M. J. Schwuger, Fette Öle Fettderivate Folgeprodukte, 1988, 114, 295.
7. C. G. Göltner and M. Antonietti, Adv. Mater., 1997, 9, 431.
8. H. Ringsdorf, B. Schlarb and J. Venzmer, Angew. Chem., 1988, 100, 117;
9. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 1988, 27, 113.
10. F. Livolant and A. Leforestier, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1992, 215, 47.
11. J. D. Bernal and I. Fankuchen, Nature 1937, 139, 923.
12. Reviews: (a) G. J. T. Tiddy, Phys. Rep., 1988, 57, 1;
13. (b) J. M. Seddon and R. H. Templer, in Handbook of Biological Physics, ed. R. Lipowsky and E. Sackmann, vol. 1, Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 1995, 97.
14. Reviews: (a) C. Tschierske, Progr. Polym. Sci., 1996, 21, 775;
15. (b) M. Paleos, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1994, 243, 159.
16. Review: V. Percec and C. Pugh, in Side Chain Liquid Crystals, ed. C. B. McArdle, Blackie, Glasgow, 1989, p. 30.
17. Review: (a) H. T. Nguyen, C. Destrade and J. Malthete, Adv. Mater., 1997, 9, 375;
18. (b) J. Malthete, H. T. Nguyen and C. Destrade, Liq. Cryst., 1993, 13, 171.
19. P. A. Winsor, in Liquid Crystals and Plastic Crystals, ed. G. W. Gray and P. A. Winsor, Horwood, Chichester, 1974, vol. 1, p.48.
20. F. Hardouin, A. M. Levelut, M. F. Achard and G. Sigaud, J. Chim. Phys., 1983, 80, 53.
21. (a) A. M. Levelut and Y. Fang, Coll. Phys. C7, 1990, 51, 229;
22. (b) B. Donnio, B. Heinrich, T. Gulik-Krzywicki, H. Delöacroix, D. Guillon and D. W. Bruce, Chem. Mater., 1997, 9, 2951;
23. (c) A. M. Levelut and M. Clerc, Liq. Cryst., 1998, 24, 105.
24. H. Sakashita, A. Nishitani, Y. Sumiya, H. Terauchi, K. Ohta and I. Yamamoto, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1988, 163, 211.
25. K. Borisch, S. Diele, P. Göring, H. Müller and C. Tschierske, Liq. Cryst., 1997, 22, 427.
26. (a) J. M. Seddon and R. H. Templer, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., 1993, A 344, 377;
27. (b) K. Fontell, Colloid Polym. Sci. 1990, 268, 264;
28. (c) P. Sakya, J. M. Seddon, R. H. Templer, R. J. Mirkin and G. J. T. Tiddy, Langmuir, 1997, 13, 3706.
29. J. N. Israelachvili, D. J. Mitchell and B. W. Ninham, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 2, 1976, 72, 1525.
30. 10 and for thermotropic compounds (undulated smectic phases, ribbon phases) in small concentration and/or temperature regions.
31. Reviews: (a) A. E. Skoulios, in Developments in Block Copolymers, ed. I. Goodman, Elsevier, Appl. Sci. Pub., London, 1982, vol. 1, p. 81;
32. (b) A. Skoulios, in Advances in Liquid Crystals, ed. G. H. Brown, Academic Press, New York, 1975, p. 169;
33. (c) A. Skoulios and D. Guillon, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1988, 165, 317;
34. (d) F. S. Bates and G. H. Fredrickson, Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem., 1990, 41, 525.
35. (e) S. Förstner, Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem., 1997, 101, 1671.
36. L. Leibler, Macromolecules, 1980, 13, 1602.
37. Block Copolymers: Science and Technology, ed. D. J. Meier, IMM Press/Harwood Academic, New York, 1983;
38. D. J. Meier, J. Polym. Sci., C, 1969, 26, 81.
39. These are only approximate values which vary depending on the chemical structure.
40. I. W. Hamley, K. A. Koppi, J. H. Rosedale, F. S. Bates, K. Almdal and K. Mortensen, Macromolecules, 1993, 26, 5959.
41. D. A. Hajduk, P. E. Harper, S. M. Gruner, C. C. Honeker, G. Kim, E. L. Thomas and L. J. Fetters, Macromolecules, 1994, 27, 4063.
42. F. S. Bates, M. F. Schulz, A. K. Khandpur, S. Förster, J. H. Rosedale, K. Almdal and K. Mortensen, Faraday Discuss., Chem. Soc., 1994, 98, 7.
43. A. K. Khandpur, S. Förster, F. S. Bates, I. W. Hamley, A. J. Ryan, W. Bras, K. Almdal and K. Mortenson, Macromolecules, 1995, 28, 8796.
44. P. Alexandridis, U. Olsson and B. Lindman, Langmuir, 1997, 13, 23.
45. Y. Hendrikx and A. M. Levelut, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1988, 165, 233.
46. J. Charvolin, J. Chim. Phys., 1983, 80, 15.
47. A. G. Petrov and A. Derzhanski, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1987, 151, 303.
48. Micro-segregation was considered to contribute to columnar mesophase formation of trans-hexasubstituted cyclohexane derivatives: K. Praefcke, B. Kohne, P. Psaras and J. Hempel, J. Carbohydr. Res., 1991, 10, 523.
49. V. Percec, J. Heck, G. Johansson, D. Tomazos, M. Kawasumi and G. Ungar, J. Macromol. Sci., Pure Appl. Chem., 1994, A31, 1031.
50. U. Stebani and G. Lattermann, Macromol. Rep., 1995, A32 (Suppl. 3) 385.
51. A. Pegenau, P. Göring and C. Tschierske, Chem. Commun., 1996, 2563.
52. J. H. Cameron, A. Facher, G. Lattermann and S. Diele, Adv. Mater., 1997, 9, 398.
53. U. Stebani, G. Lattermann, M. Wittenberg and J. H. Wendorff, J. Mater. Chem., 1997, 7, 607.
54. K. Praefcke, B. Bilgin, N. Usoltseva, B. Heinrich and D. Guillon, J. Mater. Chem., 1995, 5, 2257.
55. U. Stebani, G. Lattermann, R. Festtag, M. Wittenberg, and J. H. Wendorff, J. Mater. Chem., 1995, 5, 2247.
56. 10a and are widely used in lyotropic systems to differentiate between bicontinuous and discontinuous cubic phases, especially, if the cubic lattice is unknown.
57. G. Lattermann, J. Mater. Chem., in preparation.
58. (a) J. M. Lehn, J. Malthete and A. M. Levelut, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 1985, 1794;
59. (b) G. Lattermann, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1990, 182B, 299;
60. (c) G. Lattermann, Liq. Cryst., 1989, 6, 619;
61. (d) C. Mertensdorf and H. Ringsdorf, Liq. Cryst., 1989, 5, 1757;
62. (e) S. H. J. Idziak, N. C. Maliszewskyj, P. A. Heiney, J. P. McCauley, Jr., P. A. Sprengeler and A. B. Smith, III, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1991, 113, 7666;
63. (f) S. H. J. Idziak, N. C. Maliszewskyj, G. B. M. Vaughan, P. A. Heiney, C. Mertensdorf, H. Ringsdorf, J. P. McCauley, Jr. and A. B. Smith, III, J. Chem. Soc, Chem. Commun., 1992, 98;
64. (g) J. Malthete, D. Poupinet, R. Vilanove and J. M. Lehn, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 1989, 1016;
65. (h) M. Zhao, W. T. Ford, S. H. J. Idziak, N. C. Maliszewsky and P. A. Heiney, Liq. Cryst., 1994, 4, 583.
66. H. Fischer, S. S. Ghosh, P. A. Heiny, N. C. Maliszewskyj, T. Plesnivy, H. Ringsdorf and M. Seitz, Agnew. Chem., 1995, 107, 879;
67. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl, 1995, 34, 795.
68. U. Stebani, G. Lattermann, M. Wittenberg, R. Festtag and J. H. Wendorff, Adv. Mater., 1994, 6, 572.
69. M. Seitz, T. Plesnivy, K. Schimossek, M. Edelmann, H. Ringsdorf, H. Fischer, H. Uyama and S. Kobayashi, Macromolecules, 1996, 29, 6560.
70. The Designation as smectic phase is based on X-ray data; the optical textures are spherulitic textures as typical for columnar mesophases, see ref. 46.
71. A. Pegenau, P. Göring, S. Diele and C. Tschierske, Liquid Crystals: Chemistry and Structure, ed. M. Tykarska, R. Dabroski and J. Zielinski, Proc. SPIE, 1998, 3319, 70.
72. J. Malthete, New. J. Chem., 1996, 20, 925.
73. A. Pegenau and C. Tschierske, manuscript in preparation.
74. A.-M. Giroud-Godquin and A. Rassat, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 1982, 294, 241.
75. (a) H. Zheng and T. M. Swager, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1994, 111, 761;
76. (b) T. M. Swager and H. Zheng, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1995, 260, 301.
77. (a) J. Malthete and A. M. Levelut, Adv. Mater., 1991, 3, 94;
78. (b) J. Malthete, A. Collet and A. M. Levelut, Liq. Cryst., 1989, 5, 123.
79. U. Stebani and G. Lattermann, Adv. Mater., 1995, 7, 578.
80. S. Diele, H.-M. Vorbrodt and H. Zaschke, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. Lett., 1984, 102, 181.
81. A. S. C. Lawrence, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1969, 7, 1.
82. C. Tschierske, G. Brezesinski, F. Kuschel and H. Zaschke, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., Lett., 1989, 6, 139.
83. H. A. van Doren, R. van der Geest, R. M. Kellog and H. Wynberg, Recl. Trav. Chim. Pays-Bas, 1990, 109, 197.
84. (a) G. Lattermann and G. Staufer, Liq. Cryst., 1989, 4, 347;
85. (b) G. Lattermann, G. Staufer and G. Brezesinski, Liq. Cryst. 1991, 10, 169.
86. K. Praefcke, P. Marquardt, B. Kohne and W. Stephan, J. Carbohydr. Chem., 1991, 10, 539.
87. K. Praefcke, B. Kohne, S. Diele, G. Pelzl and A. Kjaer, Liq. Cryst., 1992, 11, 1.
88. Reviews: (a) G. A. Jeffrey, Acc. Chem. Res., 1986, 12, 179;
89. (b) G. A. Jeffrey and L. M. Wingert, Liq. Cryst., 1992, 12, 179;
90. (c) H. Prade, R. Miethchen and V. Vill, J. Prakt. Chem., 1995, 337, 427; and references therein.
91. J. W. Goodby, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1984, 110, 205.
92. V. Vill, T. Böcker, J. Thiem and F. Fischer, Liq. Cryst., 1989, 6, 349.
93. S. Fischer, H. Fischer, S. Diele, G. Pelzl, K. Jankowski, R. R. Schmidt and V. Vill, Liq. Cryst., 1994, 17, 855.
94. In most cases the aliphatic chains are liquid-like (SA). Only for 1,2-diols with long alphatic chains have low temperature mesophases with crystalline aliphatic parts been found, ref. 58.
95. G. L. Gaines, Insoluble Monolayers at Liquid-Gas Interfaces, Interscience, New York, 1966.
96. K. Borisch, A. Pegenau and C. Tschierske, unpublished results.
97. J. D. Bunning, J. E. Lydon, C. Eaborn, P. M. Jackson, J. W. Goodby and G. W. Gray, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1, 1982, 78, 713.
98. (a) W. V. Dahlhoff, Z. Naturforsch Teil B, 1987, 42, 661;
99. (b) H. A. Van Doren, T. J. Buma, R. M. Kellogg and H. Wynberg, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 1988, 460;
100. (c) A. Eckert, B. Kohne and K. Praefcke, Z. Naturforsch Teil B, 1988, 43, 878.
101. R. Miethchen, J. Holz and H. Prade, Colloid Polym. Sci, 1993, 271, 404.
102. (a) K. Praefcke, P. Marquardt, B. Kohne, W. Stephan, A.-M. Levelut and E. Wachtel, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1991, 203, 149;
103. (b) K. Praefcke and D. Blunk, Liq. Cryst., 1993, 14, 1181;
104. (c) K. Praefcke, D. Blunk and J. Hempel, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1994, 243, 323.
105. K. Praefcke, B. Kohne, A. Eckert and J. Hempel, Z. Naturforsch Teil B., 1990, 45, 1084.
106. K. Praefcke, B. Kohne, W. Stephan and P. Marquardt, Chimia, 1989, 43, 380.
107. K. Borisch, S. Diele, P. Göring and C. Tschierske, Chem. Commun., 1996, 237.
108. K. Borisch, S. Diele, P. Göring, H. Kresse and C. Tschierske, Angew. Chem., 1997, 109, 2188;
109. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed Engl., 1997, 36, 2087.
110. K. Borisch, S. Diele, P. Göring, H. Kresse and C. Tschierske, J. Mater. Chem., 1998, 8, 529.
111. U. Beginn, S. Keinath and M. Möller, Liq. Cryst., 1997, 23, 35.
112. (a) G. Lattermann and G. Staufer, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1990, 191, 199;
113. (b) G. Staufer, M. Schellhorn and G. Lattermann, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 18, 519.
114. M. Veber, E. Cheylan, S. Czernecki and J. Xie, Liqu. Cryst., 1996, 21, 197.
115. However, cubic phases were found for single chain carbohydrate derivatives with very large hydrophilic groups such as compound 26; ref. 66. These phases should be of type 1.
116. E.g. ethyl 3, 4, 5-tridodecyloxybenzoate: mp: 42 °C; H. Meier, E. Praß, G. Zerban and F. Kosteyn, Z. Naturforsch Teil B, 1988, 43, 889.
117. V. Percec, J. Heck, G. Johannson, D. Tomazos, M. Kawasumi, P. Chu and G. Ungar, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1994, 254, 137.
118. V. Percec, G. Johannsson, D. Schluter, J. C. Rona and G. Ungar, Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp., 1996, 101, 43.
119. V. Percec, D. Tomazos, J. Heck, H. Blackwell and G. Ungar, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1994, 31.
120. (a) G. Johannson, V. Percec, G. Ungar and D. Abramic, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1, 1994, 447;
121. (b) V. Percec, G. Johannson, J. Heck, G. Ungar and S. V. Batty, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1, 1993, 1411.
122. Remarkably, the same mesophase stabilising effect can also be obtained by the covalent fixation of the taper-shaped oligo(oxyethylene) derivatives 37 via polymethacrylate backbone; ref. 86.
123. (a) V. Percec, J. Heck, D. Tomazos, F. Falkenberg, H. Blackwell and G. Ungar, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1, 1993, 2799;
124. (b) V. Percec, J. A. Heck, D. Tomazos and G. Ungar, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1993, 2381.
125. V. S. K. Balagurusamy, G. Ungar, V. Percec and G. Johansson, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1997, 119, 1539.
126. B. E. Smart, in Organofluorine Chemistry Principles and Commercial Applications, ed R. E. Banks, B. E. Smart and J. C. Tatlow, Plenum Press, New York, 1994, p. 57.
127. B. Wang and S. Krause, Macromolecules, 1987, 20, 2201.
128. (a) T. A. Lobko, B. I. Ostrovskii, A. I. Pavluchenko and S. N. Sulianov, Liq. Cryst., 1993, 15, 361;
129. (b) B. I. Ostrovskii, Liq. Cryst., 1993, 14, 131.
130. B. P. Binks, P. D. I. Fletcher and R. L. Thompson, Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem., 1996, 100, 232.
131. M P. Turberg and J. E. Brady, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1988, 110, 7797.
132. J. F. Rabolt, T. P. Russell and R. J. Twieg, Macromolecules, 1984, 17, 2786.
133. (a) C. Viney, R. J. Twieg, T. P. Russell and L. E. Depero, Liq. Cryst., 1989, 5, 1783;
134. (b) C. Viney, T. P. Russell, L. E. Depero and R. J. Twieg, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1989, 168, 63.
135. H. T. Nguyen, G. Sigaud, M. F. Achard, F. Hardouin, R. J. Twieg and K. Betterton, Liq. Cryst., 1991, 10, 389.
136. (a) T. P. Rieker and E. P. Janulis, Liq. Cryst., 1994, 17, 681.
137. (b) T. P. Rieker and E. P. Janulis, Phys. Rev. E, 1995, 52, 2688.
138. T. Doi, Y. Sakurai, A. Tamatani, S. Takenaka, S. Kusabashi, Y. Nishihata and H. Terauchi, J. Mater. Chem., 1991, 1, 169.
139. S. V. Arehart and C. Pugh, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1997, 119, 3027.
140. (a) G. Pelzl, S. Diele, D. Lose, B. I. Ostrovski and W. Weissflog, Cryst. Res. Technol., 1997, 32, 99;
141. (b) W. Weissflog, Dissertation B, Halle 1989.
142. S. Diele, D. Lose, H. Kruth, G. Pelzl, F. Guittard and A. Cambon, Liq. Cryst., 1996, 21, 603.
143. S. Pensec, F.-G. Tournilhac and P. Bassoul, J. Phys. II Fr., 1996, 6, 1597.
144. (a) U. Dahn, C. Erdelen, H. Ringsdorf, R. Festag, J. H. Wendorff, P. A. Heiney and N. C. Maliszewskyj, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 19, 759;
145. (b) H. Bengs, F. Closs, F. Frey, D. Funhoff, H. Ringsdorf and K. Siemensmeyer, Liq. Cryst., 1993, 15, 565.
146. (a) F. Tournilhac, L. Bosio, J.-F. Nicoud and J. Simon, J. Chem. Phys. Lett., 1988, 145, 452;
147. (b) L. M. Blinov, T. A. Lobko, B. I. Ostrovskii, S. N. Sulianov and F. G. Tournilhac, J. Phys. II Fr., 1993, 3, 1121.
148. E. Dietzmann, W. Weissflog, S. Markscheffel, A. Jakli, D. Lose and S. Diele, Ferroelectrics, 1996, 180, 59.
149. (a) X. Bao and L. R. Dix, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1996, 281, 291;
150. (b) S. Takenaka, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 1992, 1748;
151. (c) G. Johansson, V. Percec, G. Ungar and K. Smith, Chem. Mater., 1997, 9, 164.
152. V. Percec, D. Schlueter, Y. K. Kwon, J. Blackwell, M. Möller and P. J. Slangen, Macromolecules, 1995, 28, 8807.
153. G. Johansson, V. Percec, G. Ungar and J. Zhou, Macromolecules, 1996, 29, 646.
154. V. Percec, G. Johansson, G. Ungar and J. Zhou, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 1996, 118, 9855.
155. P. A. Gemmell, G. W. Gray and D. Lacey, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1985, 122, 205.
156. F.-H. Kreuzer, D. Andrejewski, W. Haas, G. Riepl and P. Spes, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1990, 199, 345.
157. G. H. Mehl and J. W. Goodby, Chem. Ber., 1996, 129, 521.
158. F. Hardouin, H. Richard and M. F. Achard, Liq. Cryst., 1993, 14, 971.
159. M. Ibn-Elhaj, A. Skoulios, D. Guillon, J. Newton, P. Hodge and H. J. Coles, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 19, 373.
160. J. Newton, H. Coles, P. Hodge and J. Hannington, J. Mater. Chem., 1994, 4, 869.
161. J. W. Goodby, G. W. Gray, G. W. K. J. Harrison and J. A. Nash, Pramana Suppl., 1975, 1, 381.
162. F. Kuschel, A. Mädicke, S. Diele, H. Utschick, B. Hisgen and H. Ringsdorf, Polym. Bull., 1990, 23, 373 and references cited.
163. Reviews: (a) H. J. Deutscher, R. Frach, C. Tschierske and H. Zaschke, in Selected Topics in Liquid Crystal Research, ed. H.-D. Koswig, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1990;
164. (b) K. J. Toyne, in Critical Reports on Applied Chemistry, vol. 22, Thermotropic Liquid Crystals, ed. G. W. Gray, Wiley, New York, 1987, p. 28.
165. R. Eidenschink, D. Erdmann, J. Krause and L. Pohl, Angew. Chem., 1977, 89, 103;
166. R. Eidenschink, D. Erdmann, J. Krause and L. Pohl, Angew. Chem., 1978, 90, 133.
167. The phase transition given in square brackets is a 'virtual' clearing temperature, which is obtained by extrapolation from mixtures with a nematic host. No mesophase can be detected on cooling the pure compound.
168. (a) E. Kleinpeter, H. Köhler, C. Tschierske and H. Zaschke, J. Prakt. Chem., 1988, 330, 484;
169. (b) C. Tschierske, D. Joachimi, H.-M. Vorbrodt, H. Zaschke, A. Wiegeleben, A. Hauser and D. Demus, Liq. Cryst., 1989, 5, 177;
170. (c) V. Vill and J. Thiem, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. Lett., 1991, 8, 27.
171. G. Ungar, J. L. Feijoo, V. Percec and R. Yourd, Macromolecules, 1991, 24, 953.
172. (a) A. Mori, H. Takeshita, K. Kida and M. Uchida, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1990, 112, 8635;
173. A. Mori, S. Takematsu, M. Isobe and H. Takeshita, Chem. Lett., 1995, 15.
174. A. Mori, S. Takematsu and H. Takeshita, Chem. Lett., 1997, 1009.
175. S. Norvez and J. Simon, Liq. Cryst., 1993, 14, 1389.
176. However, also dipolar or quadrupolar interactions and other influences can lead to tilted phases.
177. (a) H. Schubert, J. Hausschild, D. Demus and S. Hoffmann, Z. Chem., 1978, 18, 256;
178. (b) D. Demus, A. Gloza, H. Hartung, A. Hauser, I. Raphtel and A. Wiegeleben, Krist. Tech., 1981, 16, 1445.
179. (a) G. W. Gray, B. Jones and F. Marson, J. Chem. Soc., 1957, 393;
180. (b) S. Diele, P. Brand and H. Sackmann, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1972, 17, 163.
181. (a) B. Neumann, C. Sauer, S. Diele and C. Tschierske, J. Mater. Chem., 1996, 6, 1087;
182. (b) C. Tschierske, J. A. Schröter, N. Lindner, C. Sauer, S. Diele, R. Festag, M. Wittenberg and J.-H. Wendorff, Liquid Crystals: Chemistry and Structure, ed. M. Tykarska, R. Dabrowski and J. Zielinski, SPIE, 1998, 3319, 8.
183. (a) W. Weissflog, A. Wiegeleben, S. Diele and D. Demus, Cryst. Res. Technol., 1984, 19, 583;
184. (b) W. Weissflog, I. Letko, S. Diele and G. Pelzl, Adv. Mater., 1996, 8, 76.
185. U. Nütz, S. Diele, G. Pelzl, H. Ringsdorf, W. Paulus and G. Wilson, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 18, 699.
186. H. Strzelecka, C. Jallabert, M. Veber, P. Davidson, A. M. Levelut, J. Malthete, G. Sigaud, A. Skoulios and P. Weber, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1988, 161, 403.
187. D. W. Bruce, B. Donnio, D. Guillon, B. Heinrich and M. Ibn-Elhaj, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 19, 537.
188. F. Artzner, M. Veber, M. Clerc and A.-M. Levelut, Liq. Cryst., 1997, 23, 27.
189. M. Lee, N.-K. Oh and W.-C. Zin, Chem. Commun., 1996, 1787.
190. (a) M. Lee and N.-K. Oh, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 1996, 280, 283;
191. (b) M. Lee and N.-K. Oh, J. Mater. Chem., 1996, 6, 1079.
192. M. Lee, N.-K. Oh, H. K. Lee and W.-C. Zin, Macromolecules., 1996, 29, 5567.
193. W. Weissflog and D. Demus, Cryst. Res. Technol., 1984, 19, 55.
194. G. W. Gray, J. Chem. Soc., 1955, 236.
195. F. Hildebrandt, J. A. Schröter, C. Tschierske, R. Festag, R. Kleppinger and J. H. Wendorff, Angew. Chem, 1995, 107, 1780.
196. F. Hildebrandt, J. A. Schröter, C. Tschierske, R. Festag, M. Wittenberg and J. H. Wendorff, Adv. Mater., 1997, 9, 564.
197. W. Zheng and Z.-G. Wang, Macromolecules, 1995, 28, 7215.
198. C. Auschra and R. Stadler, Macromolecules, 1993, 26, 2171.
199. J. A. Schröter, C. Tschierske, R. Festag, M. Wittenberg and J. H. Wendorff, manuscript in preparation.
200. J. A. Schröter, C. Tschierske, M. Wittenberg and J. H. Wendorff, Angew. Chem., 1997, 109, 1160;
201. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 1997, 36, 1119.
202. A. Jacobi and W. Weissflog, Liq. Cryst., 1997, 22, 107.
203. (a) B. Neumann, D. Joachimi and C. Tschierske, Liq. Cryst., 1997, 22, 509.
204. (b) R. Lunkwitz, B. Neumann and C. Tschierske, Liq. Cryst., 1998, in press.
205. M. A. Bates and G. R. Luckhurst, Liq. Cryst., 1998, 24, 229.
206. The columnar phases formed by polycatenar compounds can be changed into smectic phases via cubic and nematic phases by addition of TNF: I. Letko, S. Diele, G. Pelzl and W. Weissflog, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 19, 643.
207. (a) B. Kohne and K. Praefcke, Angew. Chem., 1984, 96, 70;
208. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl, 1995, 23, 82;
209. (b) K. Praefcke, B. Kohne, W. Stephan and P. Marquart, Chimia, 1989, 43, 380.
210. K. Praefcke, W. Poules, B. Scheuble, R. Poupko and Z. Luz, Z. Naturforsch. Teil B., 1984, 39, 950.
211. W. Poules and K. Praefcke, Chemiker-Ztg., 1983, 107, 310.
212. K. Praefcke, P. Psaras and B. Kohne, Chem. Ber., 1991, 124, 2523.
213. (a) A. Liebmann, C. Mertesdorf, T. Plesnivy, H. Ringsdorf and J. H. Wendorff, Angew. Chem., 1991, 103, 1358;
214. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 1991, 30, 1375;
215. (b) G. Lattermann, S. Schmidt, R. Kleppinger and J. H. Wendorff, Adv. Mater., 1992, 4, 30.
216. B. Kohne, K. Praefcke, W. Stephan and P. Nürnberg, Z. Naturforsch. Teil B., 1985, 40, 981.
217. U. Krappe, R. Stadler and I. Voigt-Martin, Macromolecules, 1995, 28, 4558.
218. J. Beckmann, C. Auschra and R. Stadler, Macromol. Rapid Commun., 1994, 15, 67.
219. J. T. Chen, E. L. Thomas, C. K. Ober and S. S. Hwang, Macromolecules, 1995, 28, 1688.
220. J. T. Chen, E. L. Thomas, C. K. Ober and G. Mao, Science, 1996, 273, 343.
221. Review: (a) H. Fischer and S. Poser, Acta Polymerica, 1996, 47, 413;
222. (b) E. Chiellini, G. Galli, S. Angelino and M. Laus, Trends Polym. Sci., 1994, 2, 244;
223. (c) M. Walther and H. Finkelmann, Prag. Polym. Sci., 1996, 21, 951.
224. H. Fischer, S. Poser and M. Arnold, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 18, 503.
225. V. Percec and M. Lee, Pure Appl. Chem., 1992, A29, 723.
226. L. H. Radzilowski and S. I. Stupp, Macromolecules, 1994, 27, 7747.
227. (a) J. W. Goodby, D. A. Dunmur and P. J. Collings, Liq. Cryst., 1995, 19, 703;
228. (b) J. W. Goodby, J. Mater. Chem., 1991, 1, 307.
229. A. M. Levelut; E. Hallouin, D. Bennemann, G. Heppke and D. Lötzsch, J. Phys. II Fr., 1997, 7, 981.
230. S. P. Gido and E. L. Thomas, Macromolecules, 1997, 30, 3739.
231. For more ordered supermolecular assemblies, however, a significant influence of chirality was found, review: J.-H. Fuhrhop and J. Köning, Membranes and Molecular Assemblies - The Synkinetic Approach, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 1996.
232. (a) A. Skoulios and V. Luzzati, Acta Crystallogr., 1961, 14, 278;
233. (b) B. Gallot and A. Skoulios, Acta. Crystallogr., 1962, 15, 826.
234. (a) J. L. M. van Nunen, B. F. B. Folmer and R. J. M. Nolle, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1997, 119, 283;
235. (b) J. L. M. van Nunen and R. J. M. Nolte, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2. 1997, 1473.
236. V. Percec, C-H. Ahn and B. Barboiu, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1997, 199, 12978.